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Devirtualizing Nike.com’s Bot Safety (Half 1)

by
January 7, 2023
2023-01-07 00:26:39

Internet-based assaults—comparable to account brute forcing and botting—pose a major menace to corporations that depend on digital techniques to retailer and course of delicate info. One method to guard in opposition to these assaults is browser fingerprinting. This technique works by gathering knowledge a couple of consumer’s browser, which is then used to create a novel fingerprint for differentiating between real customers and bots. Nevertheless, browser fingerprints are simple to spoof and sometimes fail to impede attackers.

That is the place obfuscation is available in: by making scripts troublesome for people to learn and perceive, obfuscation can forestall the reverse engineering and emulation of browser fingerprints.

As assaults turn into extra refined, rising layers of complexity are required to guard code. This has led to the event of virtualization obfuscation: the implementation of customized digital machine like structure. The true program is then saved as bytecode, which is decoded and interpreted by the digital machine. On this weblog put up, we’ll look at the virtualization obfuscation utilized by Nike contractor Kasada to guard Nike’s internet belongings.

As my days of peddling anti-anti bot APIs are behind me, this text will focus much less on the specifics of what knowledge is collected, and extra on dissecting the script’s reverse engineering protections.

In case you are curious, a manufacturing script will be discovered right here here. Nevertheless the script might change barely on every reload. The data ought to maintain whatever the modifications, as they’re primarily completely different strings and performance names. Nevertheless, any vital updates to the script might break among the capabilities right here.

Lets start by trying on the management stream of the principle script. Collapsing all operate definitions, we reveal the next high-level construction:

KPSDK.scriptStart = KPSDK.now();
(operate() {
	operate F(n) { ... }
	operate t() { ... }
	operate r(n, t) { ... }
	operate i(n) { ... }
	operate o(n) { ... }
	operate u(n, t) { ... }
	var n = operate (r) { ... }([function (n, t, r) { ... }]).eEA({ ... }, window, bytecode);
})();

The whole lot of the script lies inside an Immediately Invoked Function Expression (IIFE), and the one specific operate calls on this scope is to the property eEA.

It’s unclear what eEA represents, so we direct our consideration to its mother or father. A cursory look on the code is hardly illuminating.

A place to begin for analyzing this operate isn’t instantly clear. Whereas we may merely start on the prime of the operate and analyze its stream, the nested definition of eEA presents a extra logical place to begin. This operate is then sure to the enter object t, and appears to be accessible from exterior of n. This implies that eEA is the principle operate and begin of execution.

operate eEA(t, a, n) {
    for (var r = "string" == typeof n ? A.default.u(n) : n, i = r.size, v = "", o = {
      v: ""
    }, u = 0; u < 28; u++)
      v += String.fromCharCode(97 + Math.flooring(26 * Math.random()));

    operate s(n, t) {
      for (var r = [], i = 0; i < n; i++)
        r.push(t(i));
      return r
    }

    var d = operate () {
      var f = 0;
      return operate (n, t) {
        for (var r, i, o = 17 * f++ | 0, u = [], e = 0; e < 3; e++)
          u.push(e === o % 3 ? n : t());
        return r = Math.flooring(20 * Math.random()),
          i = operate () {
            return o % (this + r)
          }.bind(3 - r),
          operate () {
            return u[i()]
          }
      }
    }()
    // additional code omitted
    t.eEA = eEA
  }

Wanting on the arguments of eEA, the primary enter is an object with a single property labeled as inj0. By trying on the syntax and copyright clause, we are able to instantly write this off as a promise polyfill. Its goal is to implement promise performance to legacy browsers.

]).eEA({
"inj0":
/**
 * Copyright (c) 2014 Taylor Hakes
 * Copyright (c) 2014 Forbes Lindesay
 * 
 * Permission is hereby granted, freed from cost, to any particular person acquiring a replica
 * of this software program and related documentation recordsdata (the "Software program"), to deal
 * within the Software program with out restriction, together with with out limitation the rights
 * to make use of, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or promote
 * copies of the Software program, and to allow individuals to whom the Software program is
 * furnished to take action, topic to the next circumstances:
 * 
 * The above copyright discover and this permission discover shall be included in
 * all copies or substantial parts of the Software program.
 * 
 * THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
 * IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
 * FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
 * AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
 * LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
 * OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
 * THE SOFTWARE.
 */
typeof Promise != 'undefined' ? Promise : (operate () {
"use strict";
operate e(n) {
	var t = this.constructor;
	return this.then(operate (e) {
		return t.resolve(n()).then(operate () {
			return e
		})
	}, operate (e) {
		return t.resolve(n()).then(operate () {
			return t.reject(e)
		})
	})
}
// additional code omitted

The second argument is the browser’s window property: the principle supply of a browser fingerprint. The ultimate argument (changed in Determine 1 as bytecode for formatting causes) ought to instantly stand out. This one is available in at a whopping 386000 characters. Therefore, analyzing this string could possibly be an necessary step within the reverse engineering course of. It will show to be far more advanced than within the common bot safety program, and would be the focus of this text.

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...

For brevity, the whole string has not been included. In case you’re curious, you possibly can view it within the script linked above.

Making an attempt to know the logic of eEA from a strictly static evaluation perspective isn’t any simple process. (If any of you possibly can consider bitwise logic and sophisticated loops in your head, please contact me). Nevertheless, by following our bytecode by means of the interpreter we are able to reveal its goal.

for (var r = "string" == typeof n ? A.default.u(n) : n, i = r.size, v = "", o = {
    v: ""
}, u = 0; u < 28; u++)
    v += String.fromCharCode(97 + Math.flooring(26 * Math.random()));

Proper off the bat, we discover that the variable r is about to the results ofA.default.u(n). This variable definition is nested inside a for loop and is the results of a conditional expression. Fortunately, as we all know that the kind of r is a string for the decision we’re investigating, we are able to safely assume it’s set to A.default.u(n).

Because the definition of A.default.u isn’t instantly obvious, I used breakpoints to search out the operate definition, as demonstrated beneath:

Script breakpoint
Determine 2: The breakpoint I used to search out the definition of u(n).

We now discover the operate r.u (notice this r is in a unique scope!)

r.u = operate (n) {
    for (var t = s.P, r = t.V, i = t.W, o = r.size - i, u = [], e = 0; e < n.size;)
        for (var f = 0, c = 1; ;) {
            var a = r.indexOf(n[e++]);
            if (f += c * (a % i),
                a < i)  f);
                break
            
            f += i * c,
                c *= o
        }
    return u
}

Additional exploration reveals the worth of s.P to be an object with a hardcoded alphanumeric string and a quantity.

// t.P isn't a typo right here, the 2 values are equal.
t.P = {
    V: "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ0123456789",
    W: 50
}

It seems that r.u is a straightforward decoding operate. Particularly, it appears to transform the string to a corresponding array of bytes.

Additional down the physique of eEA, we are able to see the next references to our array, r:

var f = $()
    , c = r[i + v.indexOf(".")] ^ i
    , b = r.splice(c, r[c + f.g[0]] + 2);

Recalling how v is constructed (see the primary snippet of eEA), and that i is solely the size of r, we deduce {that a} chunk of r is being remoted and eliminated. This eliminated chunk is saved because the variable b, however extra on that later. Importantly, the kind of our bytecode has not modified: it’s nonetheless an array of bytes.

Whereas our evaluation to this point has not been notably useful, the ultimate name to r reveal the true nature of this script.

operate y(n) {
    return r[n.g[0]++] >> 5
}

operate M(n) {
    return A.default.R(r, n.g, o)
}

o.v = A.default.R(b, f.g[1].g());
var g = [];

operate m(n, t) {
    n.g[y(n)] = t
}

// ...

operate S(t) {
    for (; ;) {
        var n = g[r[t.g[0]++]];
        if (null === n)
            break;
        attempt {
            n(t)
        } catch (n) {
            O(t, n)
        }
    }
}

g.push(operate (n) {
	m(n, M(n) + M(n))
}),
g.push(operate (n) {
	m(n, M(n) - M(n))
}),
g.push(operate (n) {
	m(n, M(n) * M(n))
}),
g.push(operate (n) {
	m(n, M(n) / M(n))
}),
g.push(operate (n) {
	m(n, M(n) % M(n))
}),
g.push(operate (n) {
	m(n, +M(n))
}),
g.push(operate (n) {
	m(n, !M(n))
}),

// ...

Analyzing S(t) — known as on f as beforehand outlined — we discover some attention-grabbing traits. S(t) runs a state machine, executing capabilities out of an array, g. Every of those capabilities takes in a single argument, t, and plenty of of them observe a comparatively easy sample. Particularly, they appear to make use of m(n, t) to retailer the output of a calculation, M(n)to retrieve varied values, and n to retailer a “state” variable given by $(). I depend round 60 of them. Lastly, the factor of g to be run is chosen in a deterministic method: a quantity given by t.g[0]factors to a component of r, our bytecode, earlier than being incremented.

In case you’ve learn veritas’ earlier article, Reverse Engineering Tiktok’s VM Obfuscation (Part 1), this could scream virtualized JavaScript to you.

Making use of our data of laptop structure, we are able to now start to assign that means to every operate. S(t) is a stepper operate, executing the digital machine’s program in its argumentless loop.g is an array of brief atomic capabilities, or opcodes, with directions on when to name them. Recalling that we obtained the array from our preliminary string, because of this the string is a “program” of types, working inside Kasada’s customized digital machine. Successfully, it’s an array of opcode indices, register numbers, and different encoded info essential to carry out fingerprinting. t.g[0] is an instruction pointer, incrementing because the state machine is run, telling the script which factor of g is subsequent. In case you haven’t taken an working system class, don’t fear. I haven’t both. It will not get far more technical than this.

As a closing notice for this part, we are able to affirm our suspicions on operate calls $(), y(n), m(n), and M(n). The return of $() is fed instantly into S(t), and has the shape

operate $() {
    var n = [1, {
        h: a,
        M: null,
        $: [],
        g: operate () {
            return [0]
        },
        j: operate () {
            return [0]
        },
        O: operate () { }
    }, void 0];
    return {
        j: h(),
        g: n,
        F: void 0
    }
}

As that is handed into each opcode, in addition to the opposite three capabilities, we are able to conclude it acts because the VM state. A look at m(n) reveals that it units a component of the array g to the worth t, analogous to setting register values in a standard processor. Following this chain of logic, y(n) fetches the register quantity from the bytecode, and M(n) presumably retrieves a price from a register.

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Now that we perceive the issue at hand, it’s clear that any try at de-virtualizing and understanding this script should start with the decoding of the VM bytecode. Isolating the required code from that mentioned above, we are able to use the next script to get the correct array of bytes, put up splicing.

const fs = require("fs");
                    
const bytecode = fs.readFileSync("./take a look at/bytecode.txt", "utf8");

// that is fixed. lmao
const decryptionConstants = {
    V: "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ0123456789",
    W: 50,
};

operate decodeBytecode(n) {
    for (
    var t = decryptionConstants,
    r = t.V,
    i = t.W,
    o = r.size - i,
    u = [],
    e = 0;
    e < n.size;

    )
    for (var f = 0, c = 1; ;) {
        var a = r.indexOf(n[e++]);
        if (((f += c * (a % i)), a < i))  f);
        break;
        
        (f += i * c), (c *= o);
    }
    return u;
}

// notice: edit made right here to take away ternary. I assume operate isn't known as on bytecode that's not of string kind
// for (var r = decodeBytecode(bytecode), i = r.size, v = "", o = {
//     v: ""
// }, u = 0; u < 28; u++)
//     v += String.fromCharCode(97 + Math.flooring(26 * Math.random()));

let decodedBytecode = decodeBytecode(bytecode);
// Eliminated v name, I don't consider it ever takes a price that's not "-1," as that might introduce randomness to the decryption course of. 
// If it does can substitute -1 again with "v.indexOf(".")"
// edit made right here changing i with the size of r.u(bytecode)
let c = decodedBytecode[decodedBytecode.length - 1] ^ decodedBytecode.size;

// changed f.g[0] with 1
let bytecodeStrings = decodedBytecode.splice(c, decodedBytecode[c + 1] + 2);

console.log(decodedBytecode)

// [56,42,3,42,5,42,7,42,9,42,
// 11,42,13,42,15,42,17,42,19,
// 42,21,42,23,42,25,42,27,42,
// 29,42,31,42,33,42,35,42,37,
// 42,39,42,41,42,43,42,45,42,
// 47,42,49,50,123,6,8779,0,5, ...]

Which will be verified to match the array generated within the browser. Now that we’re able to retrieving this system’s bytecode, we are able to use our data of the VM’s opcodes and registers to determine what is occurring. This will likely be carried out in a future article, and includes creating an interpreter, and finally a decompiler for the VM’s distinctive language.

Nevertheless, there may be one necessary a part of this course of that we now have uncared for. Impressed by veritas’ earlier article, I made a decision to attempt to discover a method to retrieve strings from the bytecode. Throughout my search, I abruptly remembered the spliced out part of the bytecode. On the time, I had been so happy with my appropriate technology of the instruction array that it had completely slipped my thoughts.

references to the eliminated portion of the array, b, we see that it’s utilized in a name to A.default.R(b, f.g[1].g()), a operate additionally utilized in M(n). As we theorized that M(n) retrieves values from the bytecode, maybe this complete part of the array is solely the strings part! The definition of R validates this assumption:

(r = i = i || {}).R = operate (n, t, r)

From runtime evaluation, we are able to make a number of observations:

  • The preliminary name to this operate solely gives two parameters, thus triggering the closing return assertion.
  • Calls to this operate from M(n) use three parameters, and return a name to r._(). That is how particular person strings are retrieved.
  • Nested within the complicated ternary assertion is a name to a register worth, which is often returned if not one of the different conditionals set off.

In case you’re not satisfied, the operate r._() is outlined as follows:

o._ = operate (n, t) {
    return o.v.slice(n, n + t)
}

Operating this operate with our worth for b, eradicating conditionals not triggered on this name, and noting that f.g[1].g() merely returns [0] (see the definition of $()), we are able to add the next logic to our script:

operate decodeString(n, t) {
  // edit: eliminated variables and circumstances that aren't related to this name.
  n[t[0]++];

  for (var c = "", a = n[t[0]++], v = 0; v < a; v++)  ((39 * l) & 63));
  
  return c;
}

let strings = decodeString(bytecodeStrings, [0]);

console.log(strings)

Which certainly returns the VM’s strings, albeit concatenated collectively.

setTimecom.apple.fps.1_0navigator.mimeTypesi_cwwdtransformOriginufocusSTENCIL_VALUE_MASKjoinracecharAtaHR0cHM6Ly93d3cueW91dHVsasaiZS5jb20vd2F0Y2g/dj1lYUVNU0t6cUdBZw==hchContent-Typevjh[object Object]nppmnpxcvfif__valuesshouldAutoSolveCaptchaMax Various ComponentsprepareStackTracexmpeg322MAX_UNIFORM_BLOCK_SIZEversionhostMax Texture LOD BiasWebClientUnknownErrorgetContextwebkitGenerateKeyRequestsensorFnGroupsArray.toString820x1180MAX_ARRAY_TEXTURE_LAYERSUnmasked VendorceMax Draw Buffersaudio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"MAX_3D_TEXTURE_SIZESCISSOR_BOXseedRandomValuepdjSecurityErroralignunicodelnhaacdataButtonHighlightlocationopsgetIsInstalledMAX_TRANSFORM_FEEDBACK_SEPARATE_ATTRIBSUNIFORM_BUFFER_OFFSET_ALIGNMENT149e9513-01fa-4fb0-aad4-566afd725d1b/2d206a39-8ed7-437e-a3be-862e0f06eea3screen-moz-default-colordomainLookupStartunloadEventEndMem123psic/0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFBFFgpcslicermmasetIntervalgetItemUNPACK_FLIP_Y_WEBGLinnerTextvideoELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER_BINDINGProxy_currentEventbindscorejsSTENCIL_BACK_REFtrolMax Uniform Buffer BindingsModuleScrollbarreloadwypxMax Separate Parts$<([^>]+)>744x1133__asyncValuesaddEventListenerFRONT_FACEstyledomContentLoadedEventEndouterHeightxmlHTTPRequesteventsHistoryusredirectStartfilter[0]LINUX AARCH64asyncIterator19.123pxopenkl{}Coordinated Common TimegetCaptchaWidgetpositionnwiframetransformfirstKeys-moz-ComboboxText377kgxgpMax Array Texture LayersvgetSupportedExtensionswpUnmasked RendererperformancehtmlbfeMenuTextMimeTypeArrayreturntoTimeStringmsbase64FromBytesFnremoveChildNaNSymbol.asyncIterator isn't outlined.missingwebkittypeMinsnpJsSdkSetupErrorwsoffsetkey have to be 128-bitMAX_VIEWPORT_DIMS() => ['en-US', 'en']DEPTH_BITSAppWorkspaceMAX_TEXTURE_LOD_BIAScloseStencil Bitskeytxf3f6ed0597ef61c22e164558d7d87f7d1dpvFloat32ArrayTimeout__defineGetter__Max Vertex Uniform BlocksMax Separate AttribsdfpMemoryresSM-CrOSips.js?([^=]+)=([^:]{16})?[^:]+0Yg9URYdBlkigjo8bFZ88ZcEcDFIc3v74va9KajAhHF7GXXQJdplK2PEag8EPd51gZJ14rWFUT8l4WxflrxjsCSabdTxeyEOVtOekyCZNVurevCBj6o4wNVjpvEzH7VJfKvXRN6okifQg4YJy5taCQzH0reportErrors===InfoTextitsnavigationSAMPLESMAX_TEXTURE_IMAGE_UNITS__asyncDelegator__awaiterALIASED_POINT_SIZE_RANGE[path]hmdefinePropertyqdhObjectconfirmdsdEXT_texture_filter_anisotropicscriptx-kpsdk-vjlnMAX_VERTEX_UNIFORM_VECTORSxfwwidevineXMLHttpRequestcharCodeAtlistapplication/json;charset=UTF-8SCISSOR_TESTsetLocalDescriptionvisibleresponseEndMAX_VARYING_COMPONENTSowconnectEndMax Uniform Block Size2.1pxavailWidth476x847zvzVIEWPORTbmak.fpcf.fpVal()^capabilities*()s*{s*returns+_0x[0-9a-fA-F]+;?s*}s*brandspwid5margininvalid byte encountered throughout base64 conversionfile:dclfreeze~amijscommunicatorrefreshrequestMediaKeySystemAccessKPSDKresponseTextMax Vertex Texture Picture UnitsvmxanimationmaxtransitionscrollLINUXcreateDataChannelpgdohivactrueBLENDtestmoz-extensionattemptScriptserror: searchHighlightalPr0FRAMEBUFFER_BINDINGzwxLINUX X86_64AutomationhelpersparseaudioforEachfontSHADING_LANGUAGE_VERSIONlanguageMax Sampleswav0ptm2beaef54a533d01dba30613085c6477bhcpKP_REF=^Mozilla(/5|/5.0).*$loadEventStart321 ;)promptInvalid try and iterate non-iterable occasion.

Recovering the person strings is extra difficult, as the worth of the instruction pointer must be recognized on the time r._() is run. A full dump of the strings will be discovered here.

Though understanding the script structure is probably going adequate to copy a fingerprint by means of rigorous debugging, we now have barely scratched the floor of disassembling the digital machine. Now that we now have a greater understanding of the bytecode, in addition to how it’s decoded and interpreted, we are able to start analyzing the opcodes and registers in an try to revive JavaScript pseudocode. Particularly, with a view to absolutely disassemble the digital machine, it is going to be best to transform the bytecode to an middleman illustration, much like meeting, earlier than attemping to completely decompile this system.

Nevertheless, that may be a drawback that will likely be tackled within the subsequent put up. Within the meantime, I might encourage those that are curious to play with the code themselves. Examine how variables are saved in registers and later retrieved. Whether or not or not there are additional patterns within the opcodes, that may maybe be used to generate traces with out merely working the VM. How can we sort out the issue of subroutines within the virtualization, or the management stream obligatory for the implementation of various loops?

Whereas I’ve the solutions to a few of these questions, the work is way from carried out. Within the meantime, a number of transient thanks are so as.

  • Veritas: For being one in every of my first lecturers by means of his open supply repositories and weblog posts, in addition to for publishing this text.
  • Musicbot: For subliminally planting these concepts in my head over 2 years in the past, and serving to me domesticate my love for reverse engineering again within the day.
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