Oriental carpets in Renaissance portray

Facet of artwork historical past
Proper picture: Prayer rug, Anatolia, late Fifteenth to early Sixteenth century, with “re-entrant” keyhole motif.
Carpets of Middle-Eastern origin, both from Anatolia, Persia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, the Levant, the Mamluk state of Egypt or Northern Africa, had been used as ornamental options in Western European paintings from the 14th century onwards. Extra depictions of Oriental carpets in Renaissance portray survive than precise carpets up to date with these work. Few Center-Japanese carpets produced earlier than the seventeenth century stay, although the variety of these identified has elevated in latest a long time. Due to this fact, comparative art-historical analysis has from its onset within the late nineteenth century relied on carpets represented in datable European work.
Artwork historic background[edit]


Actions of scientists and collectors starting within the late nineteenth century have considerably elevated the corpus of surviving Oriental carpets, permitting for extra detailed comparability of current carpets with their painted counterparts. Western comparative analysis resulted in an ever extra detailed cultural historical past of the Oriental artwork of carpet weaving. This has in flip renewed and impressed the scientific curiosity of their international locations of origin. Comparative analysis based mostly on Renaissance work and carpets preserved in museums and collections continues to contribute to the increasing physique of artwork historic and cultural information.
The custom of exact realism amongst Western painters of the late Fifteenth and Sixteenth century offers pictorial materials which is commonly detailed sufficient to justify conclusions about even minute particulars of the painted carpet. The carpets are handled with distinctive care within the rendering of colours, patterns, and particulars of type and design: The painted texture of a carpet depicted in Petrus Christus‘s Virgin and Youngster, the drawing of the person patterns and motifs, and the way in which the pile opens the place the carpet is folded over the steps, all counsel that the depicted textile is a pile-woven carpet.
Visually, the carpets serve to attract consideration both to an necessary particular person, or to spotlight a location the place vital motion is occurring. In parallel with the event of Renaissance portray, initially primarily Christian saints and non secular scenes are set out on the carpets. In a while, the carpets had been built-in into secular contexts, however all the time served to characterize the thought of opulence, exoticism, luxurious, wealth, or standing. First, their use was reserved for probably the most highly effective and most rich, for royalty and the Aristocracy. Later, as extra folks gained ample wealth to afford items of luxurious, Oriental carpets appeared on the portraits of retailers and rich burghers. Throughout the late seventeenth and 18th century, the curiosity in depicting carpets declined. In parallel, the work pay much less consideration to element.
The richly designed Oriental carpets appealed strongly to Western painters. The wealthy and varied colors could have influenced the nice Venetian painters of the Quattrocento.[3] It has been urged that the pictorial illustration of carpets is linked to the event of the linear perspective,[4] which was first described by Leon Battista Alberti in 1435.[5]
The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance work is considered an necessary contribution to a “world historical past of artwork”, based mostly upon interactions of various cultural traditions.[6] Rugs from the Islamic world arrived in giant numbers in Western Europe by the Fifteenth century, which is more and more acknowledged as a pivotal temporal nexus within the cultural encounters that contributed to the event of Renaissance concepts, arts, and sciences. Intensified contacts, particularly the rising commerce between the Islamic world and Western Europe, have supplied materials sources and cultural influences to Western artists through the subsequent centuries to return. In flip, European market calls for additionally affected the carpet manufacturing of their international locations of origin.[3]
Origin and limitations of the comparative method[edit]
In 1871, Julius Lessing printed his e book on Oriental carpet design. He was relying extra on European work than on the examination of precise carpets for lack of fabric, as a result of historic Oriental carpets weren’t but collected on the time when he labored on his e book.[7] Lessing’s method has confirmed very helpful to ascertain a scientific chronology of Oriental carpet weaving, and was additional elaborated and expanded primarily by students of the “Berlin college” of Historical past of Islamic art: Wilhelm von Bode, and his successors Friedrich Sarre, Ernst Kühnel, and Kurt Erdmann developed the “ante quem“ methodology for the relationship of oriental carpets based mostly on Renaissance work.
These artwork historians had been additionally conscious of the truth that their scientific method was biased: Solely carpets produced by manufactories had been exported to Western Europe, and consequently had been obtainable to the Renaissance artists.[8] Village or nomadic rugs didn’t attain Europe through the Renaissance, and weren’t depicted in work. Not till the mid twentieth century, when collectors like Joseph V. McMullan or James F. Ballard acknowledged the creative and artwork historic worth of village or nomadic carpets, had been they appreciated within the Western World.
Traits[edit]
Proper picture: Anatolian animal carpet, circa 1500, present in Marby Church, Sweden.
Pile carpets with geometric design are identified to have been produced from the thirteenth century among the many Seljuks of Rum in jap Anatolia, whom Venice had had industrial relations since 1220.[11] The Medieval dealer and traveler Marco Polo himself talked about that the carpets produced at Konya had been the perfect on this planet:
…et ibi fiunt soriani et tapeti pulchriores de mundo et pulchrioris coloris.
“…and right here they take advantage of lovely silks and carpets on this planet, and with probably the most lovely colors.”[12]
Carpets had been additionally produced in Islamic Spain, and one is proven in a fresco of the 1340s within the Palais des Papes, Avignon.[13] The overwhelming majority of carpets in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-century work are both from the Ottoman Empire, or probably European copies of those sorts from the Balkans, Spain, or elsewhere. In actual fact these weren’t the best Islamic carpets of the interval, and few of the top-quality Turkish “court docket” carpets are seen. Even finer than these, Persian carpets don’t seem till the tip of the Sixteenth century, however change into more and more fashionable among the many very rich within the seventeenth century. The very refined Mamluk carpets from Egypt are often seen, principally in Venetian work.[14]
One of many first makes use of of an Oriental carpet in a European portray is Simone Martini‘s Saint Louis of Toulouse Crowning Robert of Anjou, King of Naples, painted in 1316–1319.[15] One other Anatolian animal carpet seems in a c. 1340–45 Sienese panel of the Holy Household attributed to Pietro or Ambrogio Lorenzetti (Abegg-Stiftung, Riggisberg) with alternating black and white animals inside colourful octagonal medallions.[16] European depictions of Oriental carpets had been extraordinarily trustworthy to the originals, judging by comparability with the few surviving examples of precise rugs of up to date date. Their bigger scale additionally permits extra detailed and correct depictions than these proven in miniature work from Turkey or Persia.
Most carpets use Islamic geometric designs, with the earliest ones additionally utilizing animal patterns such because the initially Chinese language-inspired “phoenix-and-dragon”, as in Domenico di Bartolo‘s Marriage of the Foundlings (1440). These had been stylised and simplified into near-geometric motifs of their transmission to the Islamic world.[17] The entire group, referred to within the literature as “animal rugs” disappeared from work by concerning the finish of the Fifteenth century. Solely a handful of authentic animal-pattern carpets survive, two from European church buildings, the place their rarity presumably preserved them.[18] The “Marby rug”, one of many best examples, was preserved in a church of the Swedish city of Marby, and a daring adaptation of an initially Chinese language “dragon and phoenix” motif is in Berlin. Each are rugs, lower than 2 metres lengthy, and about 1 metre large, with two compartments, although the Berlin carpet lacks a border down one lengthy facet.[19] The “Dragon and Phoenix” and the “Marby” rugs had been the one current examples of animal carpets identified till 1988. Since then, seven extra carpets of this kind have been discovered. They survived in Tibetan monasteries and had been eliminated by monks fleeing to Nepal through the Chinese cultural revolution. One in every of these carpets was acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art,[20] which parallels a portray by the Sienese artist Gregorio di Cecco, The Marriage of the Virgin, 1423.[21] It reveals giant confronted animals, every with a smaller animal inside.
Though the carpets had been displayed on a public ground in a number of examples, most carpets on the ground are in an space reserved for the primary protagonists, fairly often on a dais or in entrance of an altar, or down steps in entrance of the Virgin Mary or saints, or rulers,[22] within the method of a contemporary red carpet. This presumably mirrored the up to date apply of royalty; in Denmark the Sixteenth century Persian Coronation Carpet is used underneath the throne for coronations to today. They’re additionally usually hung over balustrades or out of home windows for festive events, such because the processions by way of Venice proven by Vittore Carpaccio or Gentile Bellini (see gallery);[23] when Carpaccio’s St Ursula embarks they’re hung over the perimeters of boats and footbridges.[24]
Oriental carpets had been usually depicted as an ornamental factor in spiritual scenes, and had been an emblem of luxurious, standing and style,[25] though they had been turning into extra broadly obtainable all through the interval, which is mirrored within the work. In some circumstances, similar to work by Gentile Bellini, the carpets mirror an early Orientalist curiosity, however for many painters they merely mirror the status of the carpets in Europe. A typical instance is the Turkish carpet on the toes of the Virgin Mary within the 1456–1459 San Zeno Altarpiece by Andrea Mantegna (see detail).[26]
Non-royal portrait sitters had been extra prone to place their carpet on a desk or different piece of furnishings, particularly in Northern Europe, although small rugs beside a mattress usually are not unusual, as within the Arnolfini Portrait of 1434.[27] Carpets are seen on tables particularly in Italian scenes displaying the Calling of Matthew, when he was engaged in his work as a tax-collector,[28] and the lifetime of Saint Eligius, who was a goldsmith. Each are proven sitting doing enterprise at a carpet-covered desk or store counter.
The Oriental carpets utilized in Italian Renaissance painting had varied geographical origins, designated in up to date Italy by completely different names: the cagiarini (Mamluk design from Egypt), the damaschini (Damascus area), the barbareschi (North Africa), the rhodioti (in all probability imported by way of Rome), the turcheschi (Ottoman Empire) and the simiscasa (Circassian or Caucasian).[29]
Among the prayer carpets represented in Christian spiritual work are Islamic prayer rugs, with such motifs because the mihrab or the Kaaba (the so-called re-entrant carpets, later known as the “Bellini” sort).[30] The illustration of such prayer rugs disappeared after 1555, in all probability as a consequence of the conclusion of their spiritual which means and connection to Islam.[31]
The depiction of Oriental carpets in work aside from portraits typically declined after the 1540s, equivalent to a decline within the style for extremely detailed illustration of objects (Detailism) amongst painters,[32] and grander classicising surrounds for hieratic spiritual photos.
Carpet patterns named after artists[edit]
Proper picture: Re-entrant prayer rug, Anatolia, late Fifteenth to early Sixteenth century.
Proper picture: “Crivelli” carpet, Anatolia, late Fifteenth-early Sixteenth century.
When Western students explored the historical past of Islamic carpetmaking, a number of forms of carpet sample grew to become conventionally known as after the names of European painters who had used them, and these phrases stay in use. The classification is usually that of Kurt Erdmann, as soon as Director of the Museum für Islamische Kunst (Berlin), and the main carpet scholar of his day. A few of these sorts ceased to be produced a number of centuries in the past, and the placement of their manufacturing stays unsure, so apparent various phrases weren’t obtainable. The classification ignores the border patterns, and distinguishes between the sort, measurement and association of gul, or bigger motifs within the central subject of the carpet. Along with 4 forms of Holbein carpets,[33] there are Bellini carpets, Crivellis, Memlings, and Lotto carpets.[34] These names are considerably random: many artists painted these sorts, and single artists usually painted many forms of carpets.
Bellini carpets[edit]
Each Giovanni Bellini and his brother Gentile (who visited Istanbul in 1479) painted examples of prayer rugs with a single “re-entrant” or keyhole motif on the backside of a bigger determine traced in a skinny border. On the high finish the borders shut diagonally to a degree, from which hangs down a “lamp”. The design had Islamic significance, and its perform appears to have been recognised in Europe, as they had been identified in English as “musket” carpets, a corruption of “mosque”.[35] Within the Gentile Bellini seen at high the rug is the “proper” method spherical; usually this isn’t the case. Later Ushak prayer rugs the place each ends have the diagonal pointed internal border, as on the high solely of Bellini rugs, are typically generally known as “Tintoretto” rugs, although this time period just isn’t as generally used because the others talked about right here.[36]
Crivelli carpets[edit]
Carlo Crivelli twice painted what appears to be the identical small rug, with the centre taken up with a posh sixteen-pointed star motif made up of a number of compartments in several colors, some containing extremely stylised animal motifs. Comparable precise carpets are extraordinarily uncommon, however there are two in Budapest.[37] The Annunciation of 1482 within the Städel museum in Frankfurt reveals it on the high, and the identical carpet appears to be used within the Annunciation, with Saint Emidius within the National Gallery, London (1486), which reveals the sort hung over a balcony to the highest left, and a special sort of carpet over one other balcony in the appropriate foreground. These appear to be a transitional sort between the early animal-pattern carpets and later purely geometrical designs, such because the Holbein sorts, maybe reflecting elevated Ottoman enforcement of Islamic aniconism.[38]
Memling carpets[edit]
Proper picture: Konya 18th century carpet with Memling gul design.
These are named after Hans Memling, who painted a number of examples of what could have been Armenian carpets within the final quarter of the fifteenth century, and are characterised by a number of strains coming off the motifs that finish in “hooks”, by coiling in on themselves by way of two or three 90° turns. One other instance seems in a miniature painted for René of Anjou about 1460.[40][41]
Holbein carpets[edit]
These in reality are seen in work from many a long time sooner than Holbein, and are sub-divided into 4 sorts (of which Holbein really solely painted two); they’re the most typical designs of Anatolian rug seen in Western Renaissance work, and continued to be produced for an extended interval. All are purely geometric and use quite a lot of preparations of lozenges, crosses and octagonal motifs inside the primary subject. The sub-divisions are between:[42]
- Sort I: Small-pattern Holbein. This kind is outlined by an infinite repeat of small patterns, with alternating rows of octagons and staggered rows of diamonds, as seen in Holbein the Youthful’s Portrait of Georg Gisze (1532), or the Somerset House Conference (1608).[43][44]
- Sort II: now extra usually known as Lotto carpets – see under.
- Sort III: Massive-pattern Holbein. The motifs within the subject contained in the border consist of 1 or two giant squares full of octagons, positioned repeatedly, and separated from one another and from the borders by slender stripes. There aren’t any secondary “gul” motifs. The carpet in Holbein’s The Ambassadors is of this kind.[45][46]
- Sort IV: Massive-pattern Holbein. Massive, sq., star-filled compartments are mixed with secondary, smaller squares containing octagons or different “gul” motifs. In distinction to the opposite sorts, which solely comprise patterns of equal scale, the sort IV Holbein reveals subordinate ornaments of unequal scale.[47][48]
Lotto carpets[edit]
These had been beforehand generally known as “small-pattern Holbein Sort II”, however he by no means painted one, in contrast to Lorenzo Lotto, who did so a number of occasions, although he was not the primary artist to point out them. Lotto can be documented as proudly owning a big carpet, although its sample is unknown. They had been primarily produced through the Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries alongside the Aegean coast of Anatolia, but additionally copied in varied components of Europe, together with Spain, England and Italy. They’re characterised by a lacy arabesque, often in yellow on a purple floor, usually with blue particulars.[50]
Although they give the impression of being very completely different from Holbein Sort I carpets, they’re a growth of the sort, the place the sides of the motifs, practically all the time in yellow on a purple floor, take off in inflexible arabesques considerably suggesting foliage, and terminating in branched palmettes. The sort was widespread and long-lasting, and is often known as “Arabesque Ushak“.[51]
To evaluate from work, they reached Italy by 1516, Portugal a few decade later, and northern Europe, together with England, by the 1560s. They proceed to seem in work till concerning the 1660s, particularly within the Netherlands.[50]
Ghirlandaio carpets[edit]
A carpet carefully associated to the 1483 portray by Domenico Ghirlandaio was discovered by A. Boralevi within the Evangelical church, Hâlchiu (Heldsdorf) in Transylvania, attributed to Western Anatolia, and dated to the late Fifteenth century.[52]
The final design of the Ghirlandaio sort, as within the 1486 portray, is expounded to Holbein Sort 1. It’s outlined by one or two central medallions of diamond form, consisting of an octagon inside a sq., from whose sides triangular, curvilinear patterns come up. Carpets with this medallion have been woven within the Western Anatolian area of Çanakkale because the Sixteenth century.[53] A carpet fragment with a Ghirlandaio medallion was discovered within the Divriği Great Mosque, and dated to the Sixteenth century. Carpets with related medallions had been dated to the seventeenth,[54][55] 18th[56] and nineteenth[57][58] century, respectively, and are nonetheless woven within the Çanakkale area as we speak.
In his essay on “Centralized Designs”, Thompson[59] relates the central medallion sample of oriental carpets to the “lotus pedestal” and “cloud collar (yun chien)” motifs, utilized in the art of Buddhist Asia. The origin of the design thus dates again to pre-Islamic occasions, in all probability Yuan time China. Brüggemann and Boehmer additional elaborate that it may need been launched to Western Anatolia by the Seljuk, or Mongol invaders within the eleventh or thirteenth century.[60] In distinction to the manifold variation of patterns seen in different carpet sorts, the Ghirlandaio medallion design has remained largely unaltered from the Fifteenth to the twenty first century, and thus exemplifies an uncommon continuity of a woven carpet design inside a particular area.
Van Eyck and Petrus Christus: Painted carpets with out surviving counterparts[edit]
The Netherlandish painters Jan van Eyck, in his Paele Madonna, Lucca Madonna, and the Dresden Triptych, and Petrus Christus in his Virgin and Youngster Enthroned with Saints Jerome and Francis have painted 4 completely different carpets, three of them of the same design. By the realism of the depictions, these are pile-woven carpets. No straight comparable carpets have survived.[61]
The carpet sample depicted on van Eyck’s Paele Madonna might be traced again to late Roman origins and associated to early Islamic ground mosaics discovered within the Umayyad palace of Khirbat al-Mafjar.[62]
Comparable, however not equivalent carpets seem within the Lucca Madonna, Dresden triptych, and Virgin and Youngster with Saints work which present a predominantly geometric design with a lozenge composition in infinite repeat, constructed up from effective bands which join eight-pointed stars. Yetkin has recognized an Anatolian carpet with the same, however extra superior lozenge design (Yetkin, 1981, plate 47[53] within the Mevlana Museum, Konya, dated to the seventeenth century. She relates these carpets to nineteenth century Caucasian “Dragon” rugs with the same lozenge design (p. 71[53]), and claims that carpets of a sort as depicted by van Eyck and Petrus Christus are early Anatolian forerunners to the later Caucasian design.
The principle borders of the carpets within the Paele and Lucca Madonna, in addition to in Virgin and Youngster with Saints nevertheless, every present a non-Oriental undulating trefoil stem.[63] Comparable ornaments might be discovered within the borders of many carpets in Early Netherlandish paintings from the Fifteenth to the start of the Sixteenth century.[63] The fringes of those carpets are sometimes discovered on the sides of the painted carpets, not on the higher and decrease ends. Both did the carpets have an uncommonly sq. form, or possibly the artists have used some license and improvised with the genuine fashions. Alternatively, the carpets depicted by van Eyck and Petrus Christus might be of Western European manufacture. The undulating trefoil design is a widely known characteristic of Western Gothic decoration.[63]
Particular carpet sorts[edit]
Mamluk and Ottoman Cairene carpets[edit]
From the center of the Fifteenth century onwards, a sort of carpet was produced in Egypt which is characterised by a dominant central medallion, or three to 5 medallions in a row alongside the vertical axis. Quite a few smaller ornaments are positioned across the medallions, similar to eight-pointed stars, or small ornaments composed of stylized floral components. The innumerable small geometric and floral ornaments give a kaleidoscopic impression. Sixty of those carpets got to the English cardinal Thomas Wolsey in alternate for a license for Venetian retailers to import wine to England.[64] The earliest identified portray representing a Mamluk carpet is Giovanni Bellinis Portrait of the Doge of Venice Loredan and his 4 advisers from 1507. A French grasp depicted The Three De Coligny brothers in 1555. One other illustration might be discovered on Ambrosius Frankens The Final Supper, about 1570. The massive medallion is depicted in a method that it kinds the nimbus of the pinnacle of Christ. The attribute Mamluk carpet ornaments are clearly seen. Ydema has documented a complete of sixteen dateable representations of Mamluk carpets.[65]
After the 1517 Ottoman conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt, two completely different cultures merged, as is seen on Mamluk carpets woven after this date. After the conquest of Egypt, the Cairene weavers adopted an Ottoman Turkish design.[66] The manufacturing of those carpets continued in Egypt into the early seventeenth century.[67] A carpet of the Ottoman Cairene sort is depicted in Ludovicus Finsonius‘ portray The Annunciation. Its border design and guard borders are the identical as a carpet within the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.[68] An identical carpet has been depicted by Adriaen van der Venne in Geckie met de Kous, 1630. Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elders Christ within the Home of Mary and Martha, 1628, reveals the attribute S-stems ending in double sickle-shaped lancet leaves. Numerous carpets of the Ottoman Cairene sort are depicted in Moretto da Brescias frescoes within the “Sala delle Dame” on the Palazzo Salvadego in Brescia, Italy.[69]
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The “Baillet-Latour” Mamluk carpet, Cairo, early Sixteenth century
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Ambrosius Francken, The Final Supper, Sixteenth century, Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp, with an Egyptian Mamluk carpet
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Ottoman carpet. In all probability Cairo, Egypt. First half of the seventeenth century
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Louis Finson, The Annunciation. seventeenth century, Museo del Prado, depicting an Ottoman Cairene carpet
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Ottoman Cairene carpet, Sixteenth century, Museum für angewandte Kunst Frankfurt St. 136
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Christ within the Home of Martha and Mary, 1628, Jan Bruegel and Peter Paul Rubens, National Gallery of Ireland, depicting an Ottoman Cairene carpet.
“Chequerboard” or Compartment carpets from the seventeenth century[edit]
An especially uncommon group of carpets, “chequerboard” carpets had been assumed to be a later and spinoff continuum of the Mamluk and Ottoman Cairene group of carpets. Solely about 30 of those carpets survived. They’re distinguished by their design composed of rows of squares with triangles in every nook enclosing a star sample. All “chequerboard” carpets have borders with cartouches and lobed medallions. Their attribution continues to be underneath debate. The colors and patterns resemble these seen in Mamluk carpets; nevertheless, they’re “S-spun” and “Z-twisted” and thus just like early Armenian carpets. Because the early days of carpet science they’re attributed to Damascus. Pinner and Franses champion this attribution as a result of Syria was half first of the Mamluk, later of the Ottoman Empire at the moment. This could clarify the similarities with the colors and patterns of the Cairene carpets.[70] The present relationship of the “chequerboard” carpets can be per European assortment inventories from the early seventeenth century. Carpets of the “chequerboard” sort are depicted on Pietro Paolinis (1603−1681) Self portrait, in addition to on Gabriël Metsus portray The musical occasion.
Massive Ushak (star and medallion) carpets[edit]
In distinction to the comparatively giant variety of surviving carpets of this kind, comparatively few of them are represented in Renaissance work.[71]
Star Ushak carpets had been usually woven in giant codecs. As such, they characterize a typical product of upper organized, city manufacture. They’re characterised by giant darkish blue star formed major medallions in infinite repeat on a purple floor subject containing a secondary floral scroll. The design was probably influenced by northwest Persian e book design, or by Persian carpet medallions.[72] As in comparison with the medallion Ushak carpets, the idea of the infinite repeat in star Ushak carpets is extra accentuated and in step with the early Turkish design custom.[73] Due to their robust allusion to the infinite repeat, the star Ushak design can be utilized on carpets of assorted measurement and in many ranging dimensions.
Medallion Ushak carpets often have a purple or blue subject adorned with a floral trellis or leaf tendrils, ovoid major medallions alternating with smaller eight-lobed stars, or lobed medallions, intertwined with floral tracery. Their border continuously accommodates palmettes on a floral and leaf scroll, and pseudo-kufic characters.[74]
The very best identified illustration of a Medallion Ushak was painted in 1656 by Vermeer in his portray The Procuress. It’s positioned horizontally; the higher or decrease finish with the star-shaped nook medallion might be seen. Underneath the lady’s hand which holds the glass, part of a attribute Ushak medallion might be seen. The carpet seen on Vermeer’s The Music Lesson, Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window, and The Concert hardly present any variations within the particulars of the design or the weaving construction point out that each one three photos may hint again to at least one single carpet Vermeer may need had at his studio. The work by Vermeer, Steen, and Verkolje depict a particular sort of Ushak carpet of which no surviving counterpart is thought. It’s characterised by its moderately sombre colors, coarse weaving, and patterns with a extra degenerated curvilinear design.[75]
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Paris Bordone, Presentation of the ring to the Doge of Venice, 1534. The one depiction of a big Star Ushak carpet with eight-pointed star medallions.
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Johannes Vermeer, The Concert, 1663–6, stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, in 1990
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Jan and Nikolaas Verkolje, Portrait of Willem de Vlamingh, 1690–1700
Persian and Anatolian carpets within the seventeenth century[edit]
Carpets remained an necessary method of enlivening the background of full-length portraits all through the Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, for instance within the English portraits of William Larkin.[76]
The finely-knotted silk carpets woven within the time of Shah Abbas I at Kashan and Isfahan are not often represented in work, as they had been likely very uncommon in European houses;[77] nevertheless, A Girl taking part in the Theorbo by Gerard Terborch (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 14.40.617) reveals such a carpet laid upon the desk on which the girl’s cavalier is sitting.[78] Floral “Isfahan” carpets of the Herat sort, however, had been exported in nice numbers to Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands, and are sometimes represented in interiors painted by Velásquez, Rubens, Van Dyck, Vermeer, Terborch, de Hooch, Bol and Metsu, the place the dates established for the work present a yardstick for establishing the chronology of the designs.[79]
Anthony van Dyck‘s royal and aristocratic topics had principally progressed to Persian carpets, however much less rich sitters are nonetheless proven with the Turkish sorts. The 1620 Portrait of Abraham Graphaeus by Cornelis de Vos, and Thomas de Keyser‘s Portrait of an unknown man (1626) and Portrait of Constantijn Huyghens and his clerk (1627) are amongst the earliest work depicting a brand new sort of Ottoman Turkish manufactory carpet, which was exported to Europe in giant portions, in all probability in an effort to meet the rising demand. A lot of related carpets had been preserved in Transylvania, which was an necessary middle of Armenian carpet commerce through the Fifteenth–nineteenth century. Many Armenians left their houses in Western Armenia dominated by Ottoman Turkey and based craft facilities of carpet weaving in Gherla, Transylvania. Therefore, carpets of this kind are identified by a time period of comfort as “Transylvanian carpets”.[80][81] Pieter de Hoochs 1663 portray Portrait of a household making music depicts an Ottoman prayer rug of the “Transylvanian” sort.[82] Within the American colonies, Isaac Royall and his household had been painted by Robert Feke in 1741, posed spherical a desk unfold with a Bergama rug.[83]
From the mid-century European direct commerce with India introduced Mughal variations of Persian patterns to Europe. Painters of the Dutch Golden Age confirmed their ability by depiction of sunshine results on table-carpets, like Vermeer in his Music Lesson (Royal Collection). By this date they’ve change into widespread within the houses of the moderately well-to-do, as is proven by historic documentation of inventories. Carpets are typically depicted in scenes of debauchery from the affluent Netherlands.[84]
By the tip of the century, Oriental carpets had misplaced a lot of their standing as status objects, and the grandest sitters for portraits had been extra prone to be proven on the high-quality Western carpets, like Savonneries, now being produced, whose much less intricate patterns had been additionally simpler to depict in a painterly method. Quite a few Orientalist European painters continued to precisely depict Oriental carpets, now often in Oriental settings.
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William Larkin‘s Dorothy Cary, later Viscountess Rochford, 1614–8, Kenwood House. Anatolian “animal-stype” carpet with a extra developed design.[53]
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Portrait of Abraham Grapheus by Cornelis de Vos, 1620, Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp
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Thomas de Keyser: Portrait of Constantijn Huygens and his clerk, 1627, National Gallery
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Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke together with his Household, by Anthony van Dyck, whose sitters had principally moved on to Persian carpets
Notion of Oriental carpets through the Renaissance[edit]

The notion of Oriental carpets through the Renaissance is characterised by three major points:
- Resulting from their perceived rarity, preciousness and strangeness, Oriental carpets had been depicted as a background for saints and non secular scenes. In a while, the spiritual iconography was taken over by politically highly effective individuals in an effort to assert their standing and energy.
- Oriental carpets had been extra typically perceived as a uncommon commodity, and objects of luxurious and ornament. From the mid Sixteenth century onwards, the iconological context typically prolonged in direction of the thought of profligacy or vainness.
- When contacts, usually of a violent nature, grew nearer between the Islamic world and Europe, Oriental carpets had been typically used as an emblem of Christian self-assertion.
In any case, Oriental carpets had been utilized in Western Europe in several methods and contexts than within the Islamic world, and their authentic cultural context was by no means absolutely understood.[6]
Sacred Floor – or “Christian Oriental Carpets”?[edit]
Oriental carpets seem for the primary time on early Renaissance work of the late twelfth century. Typically the carpets function a background for spiritual scenes. Saints had been depicted enthroned or standing on carpets, thus being elated, and separated from their environment. Odd folks, usually the donors of the portray, had been typically allowed to take part within the ambiance of holiness by depicting them close to the holy particular person, or actually kneeling or standing “on the identical carpet” because the saint. This context continues to be understood and at occasions used as we speak.[85]
The precise interpretation of the spiritual context has been proposed by Volkmar Gantzhorn in 1998. He in contrast intimately the patterns and symbols of each the Renaissance work and surviving carpets with historic ornaments, for instance with Armenian illuminated manuscripts. He concluded that almost all of the surviving and painted carpets alike had been produced by Christian Armenian weavers. The hidden Christian symbolism of the carpet patterns had subsequently made the so-called “Christian oriental carpets” applicable adornments for Western European Christian church buildings. Following this speculation, the shortage of up to date Western European written sources, which might in any other case present impartial proof to help Gantzhorn’s claims, is defined by the truth that the information of the hidden symbols was topic to oral custom, and restricted to a small spiritual élite. The Armenian genocide had led to the lack of the oral custom, and, subsequently, to an incorrect “Islamic” attribution of the carpets by nearly all of Western artwork historians.[86] The controversy about Gantzhorn’s hypotheses, which is at occasions carried out polemically and never completely freed from nationalistic constraints, continues to be ongoing. And it is excessive time to announce the actual story of rugs/carpets to the world and current the primary historic rug present in Pazyryk as an historic Armenian rag woven by effective and gifted Armenian masters within the fifth century BC. When chemists and dye specialists of the Hermitage Museum examined the Pazyryk carpet for varied substances, it has been concluded that the purple threads used within the carpet had been coloured with a dye constructed from the Armenian cochineal, which was anciently discovered on the Ararat plains. Furthermore, the method used to create the Pazyryk carpet is per the Armenian double knot method.
Objects of luxurious and ornament[edit]

We don’t perceive precisely how Renaissance artists thought concerning the Oriental carpets they had been depicting. We all know that the Venetian Piazza San Marco was adorned with carpets hanging from the home windows of the encircling palaces and homes on particular events. Like the attractive girls searching of the home windows, the carpets perform as an ornamental framework, and spotlight the necessary motion which is occurring. Much like the wrong pseudo-kufic writing in up to date work, the European artists borrowed one thing from one other tradition which they, primarily, didn’t perceive.[6]



In a sequence of letters[87] from Venice dated 18 August – 13 October 1506,[88] the German painter Albrecht Dürer tells his pal Willibald Pirckheimer about his efforts to purchase two carpets for him in Venice:
Vnd dy 2 tebich will mir Anthoni Kolb awff daz hubschpt, preytest vnd wolfeillest helfen khawffen. So jch sy hab, will jch sy dem jungen Im Hoff geben, daz er ys ewch einschlache. Awch will jch sehen noch den kranchs federen.
“Anthoni Kolb will assist me shopping for 2 carpets, the nicest, broadest and most cost-effective [we can get]. As quickly as I’ve them, I’ll hand them over to the younger Im Hoff, and he’ll put together them for transport. I’ll search for crane feathers as nicely.”
(18 August 1506)
Jtem allen fleis hab jch an kertt mit den tewichen, kan aber kein preiten an kumen. Sy sind al schmall vnd lang. Aber noch hab jch altag forschung dornoch, awch der Anthoni Kolb.
“I’ve carried out all I might with the carpets, however I can not get any of the broad ones. They’re all slender and rectangular. I am persevering with my search on daily basis, Anthoni Kolb as nicely.”(8 September 1506)
Jch hab awch zwen dewich bestelt, dy würd jch morgen tzalen. Aber jch hab sy nit wolfell kunen kawffen.
“I’ve ordered two carpets, and pays for them tomorrow. However I couldn’t purchase at an inexpensive worth.”(13 October 1506)
— Albrecht Dürer, letters from Venice to Willibald Pirckheimer[87]
Dürer was shopping for varied unique luxurious items for Pirckheimer in Venice, and he mentions the 2 carpets amongst gold, jewels, and crane feathers. We have no idea if Dürer in any method attributed creative worth to those carpets. No Oriental carpets had been ever depicted by Dürer.[89]
A quite common sort of genre painting of the Dutch Golden Age and Flemish Baroque, the so-called Merry Company sort of portray, depicts a gaggle of individuals having fun with themselves, often seated with drinks, and sometimes music-making. In these photos, Oriental carpets usually cowl and embellish the desk, or are unfold over the furnishings. As such, they both underline the wealth and respectability of the portrayed, or add a context of exoticism and profligacy to brothel scenes, or scenes of debauchery.[90]
By the Sixteenth century, Oriental carpets had been usually depicted in still life work. Assorted helpful, unique objects like Chinese language porcelain bowls and animals like parrots are depicted, usually with an allegorical which means, or symbolizing “vanitas“, the futility of human life. The allusion to futility is made obvious by the inclusion of symbols like a human cranium, or inscriptions quoting the biblical e book of Ecclesiastes 1:2;12:8. As early as 1533, Hans Holbein’s portray The Ambassadors prominently reveals an anamorphic projection of a human cranium. Objects in nonetheless life work, no matter their allegorical which means, are sometimes positioned on valuable velvet desk cloths, marble plates, or Oriental carpets. As such, Oriental carpets are handled just like different valuable objects or supplies, the main target being on their materials worth and ornamental impact.[91]
Objects of European self-assertion[edit]

In September 1479 the Venetian painter Gentile Bellini was despatched by the Venetian Senate as a cultural ambassador to Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror‘s new Ottoman capital Constantinople as a part of the peace settlement between Venice and the Turks. Vasari wrote that Bellini “portrayed the Emperor Mahomet from the life so nicely, that it was held a miracle”.[92] The relationship and authorship of the portrait by Bellini have been positioned in query,[93] nevertheless, Bellini is the primary nice Renaissance painter who really visited an Islamic Sultan’s court docket.
The affect of Bellinis encounter with the Islamic world is mirrored by Oriental motifs showing in a number of of his work. His 1507 St. Mark Preaching at Alexandria anachronistically reveals the patron saint of Venice preaching to Muslims. The structure proven within the background is an incongruous assortment of buildings, not equivalent to up to date Islamic structure. The stage-like setting for St Mark’s sermon is adorned by unique animals like a camel and a giraffe, in addition to architectural components like an historic Egyptian obelisk, within the background.[6] Bellini’s use of those ornamental components resembles the way in which Oriental carpets are depicted in 14th and Fifteenth century Renaissance work: They’re depictions of the unique and the valuable, they set a stage for an necessary particular person or motion, however, as but, primarily ignore their authentic cultural context.

The 1547 depiction of King Edward VI of England standing on an Oriental carpet in entrance of a throne on the identical carpet asserts the younger fidei defensor‘s energy and energy, by a deliberate echo of the pose of his father’s famous portrait by Holbein.
Nothing is thought about how a lot Ambrosius Francken knew concerning the cultural background of the Mamluk carpet, which he used as a ornament for his Final Supper. The portray can solely be roughly dated to the Sixteenth century. The usage of the central medallion of an Oriental carpet to spotlight the nimbus of Christ, nevertheless, represents a particular case: The usage of the motif might both have resulted from a mere similarity of the 2 pictorial patterns, however it can be understood as an assertion of Renaissance Christian predominance. Europeans had causes to worry the Islamic world: in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna, and the Ottoman Empire remained a continuing menace to Western Europe till the late seventeenth century.
In his 1502–9 cycle of the Piccolomini library frescoes on the Dome of Siena, Pinturicchio depicts Pope Pius II convoking, because the Latin inscription explains, a Food plan of Princes at Mantua to proclaim a brand new campaign in 1459. On the eighth fresco, a desk in entrance of the Pope’s throne is roofed by an Oriental carpet. It was hypothesized that the carpet may need been a trophy from earlier expeditions.[6]
Valuable Oriental carpets had been a part of the so-called “Türkenbeute” (lit.: “Turkish loot”) from the siege of Vienna, which ended on 12 September 1683, and their new Christian homeowners proudly reported again residence about their plunder. Carpets exist with inscriptions indicating the brand new proprietor, and the date when it was acquired:
A. D. Wilkonski XII septembris 1683 z pod Wiednia
“A. D. Wilkonski, Vienna, 12 September 1683”— Inscription on the bottom of an Oriental “Polonaise” carpet, as soon as within the Moore assortment, present location unknown.[3]
Nearly all of Oriental carpets, nevertheless, proceed to be depicted as objects with visible attraction, with out political connotations, however ignoring their authentic cultural context. It was reserved to a later century to attempt to attain out for a greater understanding of the carpets inside their Islamic cultural context. While Islamic carpets initially served to adorn Renaissance work, in a while the work contributed to a greater understanding of the carpets. Comparative artwork historic analysis on Oriental carpets in Renaissance portray thus provides one other facette, and results in a greater understanding of the extremely multifaceted, and typically ambivalent, picture of the Ottomans through the Western European Renaissance.
- ^ a b Лятиф Керимов. Азербайджанский ковёр. Том III. VI. Карабахская школа. Б) Джебраилская группа. Б.: «Гянджлик», 1983, рис.121
- ^ Azerbaijani carpets: Karabakh group, Azerbaijan Carpet Museum, web page 124-125 Accessed: 28. 07. 2013
- ^ a b c Erdmann, Kurt (1970). Erdmann, Hannah (ed.). Seven Hundred Years of Oriental Carpets. Translated by Beattie, Might H.; Herzong, Hildegard. Berkeley, California: College of California Press. ISBN 9780520018167.
- ^ Bier, Carol (2010). “From grid to projected grid: Oriental carpets and the development of linear perspective”. Proceedings of the Textile Society of America – twelfth Biennal Symposium. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
- ^ Alberti, Leon Battista (2011). Sinisgalli, Rocco (ed.). On portray : a brand new translation and demanding version (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge College Press. ISBN 9781107000629.
- ^ a b c d e Service, David (2008). A world artwork historical past and its objects. College Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State College Press. ISBN 978-0271034157.
- ^ Lessing, Julius (1877). Altorientalische Teppichmuster: Nach Bildern und Originalen des XV. – XVI. Jahrhunderts, translated into English as Historical Oriental Carpet Patterns after Footage and Originals of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. London: H. Sotheran & Co., 1879. Berlin.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location lacking writer (link) - ^ Erdmann, Kurt (1977). Pinner, R.: Editorial to “The historical past of the early Turkish carpet.” by Ok. Erdmann (1977 English ed. of the unique, 1957 German ed.). London: Oguz Pr. ISBN 9780905820026.
- ^ a b Mack, p.75
- ^ King & Sylvester, 49
- ^ Mack, p.74
- ^ Marsden, William (2010). Wright, Thomas (ed.). Travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian: the interpretation of Marsden revised. [S.l.]: Bibliobazaar, Llc. p. 28. ISBN 978-1142126261.
- ^ King & Sylvester, 10-11
- ^ King & Sylvester, 17
- ^ Mack, p.74-75. Image
- ^ Burke, S. Maureen (2011). “Mary with Her Spools of Thread: Domesticating the Sacred Inside in Tuscan Trecento Artwork”. in John Garton and Diane Wolfthal, eds., New Research on Previous Masters: Essays in Renaissance Artwork in Honour of Colin Eisler. Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Research. p. 295.
- ^ Mack, p.75. King & Sylvester, pp. 13, and 49-50.
- ^ King & Sylvester, pp. 49-50.
- ^ King & Sylvester, 49-50
- ^ “Animal carpet at the Metropolitan Museum of Art”. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
- ^ “National Gallery London”. Nationwide Gallery London NG 1317. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
- ^ Mack, p.76
- ^ King & Sylvester, p. 14
- ^ Carpaccio image
- ^ Mack, p.73-93
- ^ Mack, p.67
- ^ King & Sylvester, p. 20
- ^ King & Sylvester, 14
- ^ Mack, p.77
- ^ Mack, p.84. King & Sylvester, p. 58.
- ^ Mack, p.85.
- ^ Mack, p.90
- ^ Old Turkish carpets web site
- ^ King & Sylvester
- ^ King and Sylvester, pp. 14-16, 56, 58.
- ^ King & Sylvester, 78
- ^ One proven here, a few third of the way in which down the web page.
- ^ King & Sylvester, pp. 14, 26, 57-58. Campbell, p. 189.National Gallery zoomable image Archived 2009-05-07 on the Wayback Machine. There’s a completely different sort of carpet hung from the Virgin’s home, at high center-right.
- ^ King and Sylvester, p. 57
- ^ Todd Richardson, Plague, Climate, and Wool, AuthorHouse, 2009, p.182(344), ISBN 1-4389-5187-6, ISBN 978-1-4389-5187-4
- ^ King and Sylvester, pp. 56-57.
- ^ King & Sylvester, pp. 26-27, 52-57. Campbell, p. 189.
- ^ Old Ottoman carpets, see additionally final notice.
- ^ Erdmann, Kurt (1965). Der Orientalische Knüpfteppich. = Oriental Carpets: An Essay on their Historical past. tr. C. G. Ellis, New York, 1960 (third ed.). Tübingen: Verlag Ernst Wasmuth. p. 23.
- ^ Old Ottoman carpets, Massive-pattern Sort III Holbein Carpets. See additionally notice to the final paragraph.
- ^ Erdmann, Kurt (1965). Der Orientalische Knüpfteppich. = Oriental Carpets: An Essay on their Historical past. tr. C. G. Ellis, New York, 1960 (third ed.). Tübingen: Verlag Ernst Wasmuth. p. 25.
- ^ Old Ottoman carpets, Massive-pattern Sort IV Holbein Carpets. See additionally notice to the final paragraph.
- ^ Erdmann, Kurt (1965). Der Orientalische Knüpfteppich. = Oriental Carpets: An Essay on their Historical past. tr. C. G. Ellis, New York, 1960 (third ed.). Tübingen: Verlag Ernst Wasmuth. p. 26.
- ^ King and Sylvester, p. 17.
- ^ a b King and Sylvester, p. 67
- ^ Cambell, p. 189. Old Ottoman carpets. Type II Holbein or “Lotto” Carpets. King and Sylvester, pp. 16, 67-70.
- ^ Ionescu, Stefano (2004). “Transsylvanian Tale” (PDF). HALI (137): 53. Retrieved 22 June 2015 – through www.transsylvanian rug.
- ^ a b c d Yetkin, Serare (1981). Historic Turkish Carpets (1st ed.). Istanbul: Turkiye is Bankasi Cultural Publications. pp. 59–65.
- ^ “17th century Ghirlandaio carpet sold at Christie’s 5 April 2011”.
- ^ Herrmann, Eberhart (1988). Seltene Orientteppiche/Uncommon Oriental Carpets Vol. X (1st ed.). Munich: Eberhart Herrmann. p. 39. ISBN 3-923349-60-2.
- ^ Denny, Walter B. (2014). Learn how to Learn Islamic Carpets (1 ed.). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Artwork. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-58839-540-5.
- ^ “19th century Ghirlandaio carpet at the Met Museum of Art”. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
- ^ Zipper, Kurt; Fritzsche, Claudia (1995). Oriental Rugs Vol. 4 – Turkish (1st ed.). Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Vintage Collectors’ Membership, Ltd. p. 18.
- ^ Herrmann, Eberhart (1982). From Konya to Kokand – Uncommon Oriental Carpets III. Munich: Eberhart Herrmann.
- ^ Brüggemann, Werner; Boehmer, Harald (1982). Teppiche der Bauern und Nomaden in Anatolien (1st ed.). Munich: Verlag Kunst und Antiquitäten. pp. 60–78. ISBN 3-921811-20-1.
- ^ King and Sylvester, 20
- ^ Brüggemann, Werner (2007). Der Orientteppich/The Oriental Carpet (1st ed.). Wiesbaden, Germany: Dr Ludwig Reichert Verlag. pp. 87–176. ISBN 978-3-89500-563-3.
- ^ a b c Ydema, 1991, p. 9
- ^ Beattie, Might H. (1972). The Thyssen-Bornemisza Assortment of Oriental Rugs (1st ed.). Castagnola: The Thyssen-Bornemisza Assortment.
- ^ Ydema 1991, p. 19–20
- ^ “Ottoman-Cairene carpet in the Met. Museum of Art”. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
- ^ Pinner, R.; Franses, M. (1981). “East Mediterranean carpets within the Victoria and Albert Museum”. Hali. IV (1): 39–40.
- ^ Ydema 1991, p. 21–25
- ^ “The Sala delle Dame”. Hali (200): 208. 2019.
- ^ Pinner, Robert; Franses, Michael (1981). “East mediterranean carpets within the Victoria & Albert Museum”. Hali. 4 (1): 40.
- ^ Ydema 1991, p. 43
- ^ “Star Ushak, Metropolitan Museum of Art”. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
- ^ Tapis – Current de l’orient a l’occident (1st ed.). Paris: L’Institut du Monde Arabe. 1989. p. 4. ISBN 9782906062283.
- ^ “Medallion Ushak carpet at the Metropolitan Museum of Art”. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
- ^ Ydema 1991, p. 39–45
- ^ King & Sylvester, 19
- ^ Examples in Polish collections led to their being miscalled “Polish carpets” within the nineteenth century, a misnomer that has caught: “representations of ‘Polish’ silk rugs in work are uncommon” report Dimand and Mailey 1973, p.59.
- ^ Maurice Dimand and Jean Mailey, Oriental Rugs in The Metropolitan Museum of Artwork, p. 60, fig.83.
- ^ Dimand and Mailey 1973, p 67, illustrating floral Herat rugs in A Go to to the Nursery by Gabriel Metsu (Metropolitan Museum of Artwork, 17.190.20), p. 67,fig. 94; Portrait of Omer Talon, by Philippe de Champaigne, 1649 (National Gallery of Art, Washington, p.70, fig. 98); Lady with a Water Jug, by Jan Vermeer (Metropolitan Museum of Artwork, 89.15.21, p.71, fig. 101
- ^ Ydema 1991, p. 48–51
- ^ Ionescu, Stefano (2005). Antique Ottoman Rugs in Transylvania (PDF) (1st ed.). Rome: Verduci Editore. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
- ^ Ydema 1991, p. 51
- ^ Within the assortment of Harvard College Regulation College; illustrated in Dimand and Mailey 1973, p.193, fig. 178.
- ^ King & Sylvester, pp. 22-23
- ^ “Pope John Paul II’s coffin placed on a Bijar carpet during his funeral mass”. The Instances. 19 February 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ Gantzhorn, Volkmar (1998). Orientalische Teppiche : eine Darstellung der ikonographischen und ikonologischen Entwicklung von den Anfängen bis zum 18. Jahrhundert [Oriental carpets : Their iconographical and iconological development from the beginnings to the 18th century] (in German). Cologne: Taschen. ISBN 3-8228-0397-9.
- ^ a b Rupprich, Hans, ed. (1956). A. Dürer. Schriftlicher Nachlass / Writings (third ed.). Berlin: Deutscher Verein für Kunstwissenschaft.
- ^ Erdmann, Kurt (1962). Europa und der Orientteppich [Europe and the Oriental Rug] (in German) (1st ed.). Mainz: Florian Kupferberg Verlag. p. 49.
- ^ Raby, Julian (1982). Venice, Dürer, and the oriental mode (1. publ. ed.). [S.l.]: Islamic Artwork Publications. ISBN 978-0856671623.
- ^ Westermann, Mariët (2007). A cosmopolitan artwork : the Dutch Republic, 1585-1718 (2nd reprinted ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale College Press. ISBN 978-0300107234.
- ^ Bergström, Ingvar (1983). Dutch still-life portray within the seventeenth century (Facsim. ed.). New York: Hacker artwork books. ISBN 978-0878172795.
- ^ Vasari, Giorgio (2005). Jacks, Philip Joshua (ed.). The lives of probably the most glorious painters, sculptors, and designers. Translated by du C. de Vere, Gaston (Pbk. ed.). New York: Trendy Library. ISBN 978-0375760365.
- ^ “The Sultan Mehmet II”. Nationalgallery.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-08-26. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
- ^ Historic floors by Jane Fawcett p.156
References[edit]
- Campbell, Gordon. The Grove Encyclopedia of Ornamental Arts, Quantity 1, “Carpet, S 2; Historical past(pp. 187–193), Oxford College Press US, 2006, ISBN 0-19-518948-5, ISBN 978-0-19-518948-3 Google books
- King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Japanese Carpet within the Western World, From the Fifteenth to the seventeenth century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ISBN 0-7287-0362-9
- Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Commerce and Italian Artwork, 1300-1600, College of California Press, 2001 ISBN 0-520-22131-1
- Ydema, Onno: Carpets and their datings in Netherlandish Work, 1540–1700. Vintage Collectors’ Membership, Woodbridge, ISBN 1-85149-151-1
Additional studying[edit]
- Brancati, Luca E., ‘Figurative Proof for the Philadelphia Blue-Floor SPH and an Artwork Historic Case Examine: Gaudenzio Ferrari and Sperindio Cagnoli’, Oriental Carpet and Textile Research Vol. V half 1 (1999) 23-29.
- Brancati, Luca E., ‘The carpets of the Painters’ Exhibition catalogue, Skira, Milan 1999.
- Burke, S. Maureen, ‘Mary with Her Spools of Thread: Domesticating the Sacred Inside in Tuscan Trecento Artwork,’ in John Garton and Diane Wolfthal, eds., New Research on Previous Masters: Essays in Renaissance Artwork in Honour of Colin Eisler, Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Research, 2011, 289-307.
- Mills, John, Carpets in Footage, The Nationwide Gallery, London, 1976. Revised and expanded version, printed as Carpets in Work, 1983.
- Mills, John, ‘Early animal carpets in western work – a evaluation’, HALI. The Worldwide Journal of Oriental Carpets and Textiles, Vol.1 no. 3 (1978), 234-43.
- Mills, John, ‘Small-pattern Holbein carpets in western work’, HALI, Vol. 1 no. 4 (1978), 326-34; ‘Three additional examples’, HALI, Vol. 3 no. 3 (1981), 217.
- Mills, John, ‘”Lotto” carpets in western work’, HALI, Vol. 3 no. 4 (1981), 278-89.
- Mills, John, ‘East Mediterranean carpets in western work’, HALI, Vol. 4 no.1 (1981), 53-5.
- Mills, John, ‘Close to Japanese Carpets in Italian Work’ in Oriental Carpet and Textile Research, Vol. II (1986), 109-21.
- Mills, John, ‘The ‘Bellini’, ‘Keyhole’, or ‘Re-entrant’ rugs’, HALI, Subject 58 (1991), 86-103, 127-8.
- Mills, John, ‘The animal rugs revisited’, Oriental Carpet and Textile Research Vol. VI (2001), 46-51.
- Rocella, Valentina, ‘Massive-Sample Holbein Carpets in Italian Work’, Oriental Carpet and Textile Research Vol. VI (2001), 68-73.
- Spallanzani Marco, ‘Oriental Rugs in Renaissance Florence’, The Bruschettini Basis for Islamic and Asian Artwork, Genova 2007
- Born, Robert; Dziewulski, Michael; Messling, Guido, eds. (2015). The Sultan’s world: The Ottoman Orient in Renaissance artwork (1 ed.). Ostfildern, Germany: Hatje Cantz Verlag. ISBN 9783775739665.
Exterior hyperlinks[edit]