Progress on SDG 7 achieved by EU international locations in relation to the goal 12 months 2030: A multidimensional indicator evaluation utilizing dynamic relative taxonomy

2024-02-28 14:25:33

Summary

In 2015, 193 UN members adopted the decision “Reworking our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Growth”, which set out 17 Sustainable Growth Objectives to be achieved by 2030. The goal of the research is to evaluate progress in direction of assembly SDG 7 “Guarantee entry to inexpensive, dependable, sustainable and fashionable vitality for all” by particular person EU international locations in 2010–2021 and to find out their distance in relation to the goal set for 2030. Eurostat screens and assesses progress in direction of SDG 7 utilizing seven indicators. These indicators had been used to create an mixture index. So as to restrict the affect of the compensation impact on the rating of EU international locations, we utilized dynamic relative taxonomy with the geometric imply to create an mixture measure that takes into consideration goal values for the symptoms with adjusted information. The research reveals systematic progress in direction of reaching the EU’s SDG 7 within the interval 2010–2021, with variations between particular person EU international locations clearly lowering. The smallest distance in relation to the goal set for SDG 7 will be noticed for Sweden, Denmark, Estonia, and Austria. By far the best progress in interval 2010–2021 has been achieved by Malta, and important for Cyprus, Latvia, Belgium, Eire, and Poland.

Quotation: Walesiak M, Dehnel G (2024) Progress on SDG 7 achieved by EU international locations in relation to the goal 12 months 2030: A multidimensional indicator evaluation utilizing dynamic relative taxonomy. PLoS ONE 19(2):
e0297856.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297856

Editor: André Ramalho, FMUP: Universidade do Porto Faculdade de Medicina, PORTUGAL

Obtained: July 12, 2023; Accepted: January 10, 2024; Revealed: February 28, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Walesiak, Dehnel. That is an open entry article distributed beneath the phrases of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows unrestricted use, distribution, and copy in any medium, offered the unique writer and supply are credited.

Information Availability: The info underlying the outcomes offered within the research can be found from Eurostat web site: “Annual EU SDG indicator assessment” (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/sdi/information-on-data).

Funding: The potential for funding for publication inside the ‘Regional Initiative for Excellence programme of the Minister of Training and Science of Poland, years 2019-2023” (grant no. 004/RID/2018/19) ended on the finish of 2023. At the moment, the publication will be funded by two universities: Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu (50%) and Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny we Wrocławiu (50%). The funder doesn’t play any position within the research design, information assortment and evaluation, resolution to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing pursuits: The authors have declared that no competing pursuits exist.

1. Introduction

1.1. The traits of SDG 7 aim, variables, and goal ranges

In September 2015, 193 United Nations member states adopted the decision “Reworking our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Growth” containing 17 Sustainable Growth Objectives [1]. Purpose 7: “Guarantee entry to inexpensive, dependable, sustainable and fashionable vitality for all” contains three core targets, that are to be achieved by 2030 [2, p. 19/35]:

7.1. Guarantee common entry to inexpensive, dependable, and fashionable vitality providers.
7.2. Improve considerably the share of renewable vitality within the international vitality combine.
7.3. Double the worldwide charge of enchancment in vitality effectivity.
7.a. Improve worldwide cooperation to facilitate entry to wash vitality analysis and know-how, together with renewable vitality, vitality effectivity and superior and cleaner fossil-fuel know-how, and promote funding in vitality infrastructure and clear vitality know-how.
7.b. Increase infrastructure and improve know-how for supplying fashionable and sustainable vitality providers for all in creating international locations, particularly least developed international locations, small island creating States and landlocked creating international locations, in accordance with their respective packages of help.

Progress in direction of reaching core targets of SDG 7 is measured by deciding on an applicable set of indicators. The worldwide indicator framework (United Nations, 2022) incorporates 248 SDG Indicators for 17 SDGs. Indicators for SDG 7 included within the UN publication and 2030 targets for OECD international locations based mostly on [3] are offered in Table 1.

The primary analysis aim of the research described in that is to evaluate progress in attaining core targets of SDG 7 by EU member states within the interval 2010–2021 and figuring out their distances in relation to the objectives set for 2030. Since 2017 Eurostat has printed an “Annual EU SDG indicator assessment” (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/sdi/information-on-data), which incorporates an up to date checklist of indicators for 17 SDGs (SDGs within the EU context). Seven indicators, outlined in 2017 to observe progress on SDG 7, haven’t modified till now. They’re systematically monitored and assessed by Eurostat. Solely three indicators from this checklist are constant or partially according to UN World checklist indicators (see Table 2).

The next 2030 targets for the seven indicators used to observe progress on SDG 7 achieved by UE member states have been adopted within the research (see the final column in Table 2):

a. Within the case of „Major vitality consumption”, „Closing vitality consumption” and “Share of renewable vitality in gross last vitality consumption”, targets for 2030 are the identical as these set by the European Fee [7]. Since indicators of vitality consumption (main, last) are expressed in absolute phrases (million tonnes of oil equal–mtoe), they can’t be used to match completely different EU international locations as a result of these portions usually are not immediately comparable. Because of this, absolute values had been changed with indices representing modifications in main and last vitality consumption in relation to values recorded in 2005 (Index 2005 = 100);
b. If no goal worth will be discovered within the 2030 Agenda, it’s based mostly on “finest efficiency” amongst EU international locations for 2015 12 months. That is outlined as:
- the ninetieth percentile for stimulants–i.e., the extent attained in 2015 by the highest 10% of EU27 international locations. The same strategy was proposed by OECD [3, p. 23] considering information for OECD international locations;
- the tenth percentile for destimulants–i.e., the extent attained in 2015 by the highest 10% of EU27 international locations.

The evaluation relies on common information for the European Union and for 27 EU international locations individually from the interval 2010–2021. The research contains Croatia, which joined the EU in 2013 and excluded the UK, which left the EU in January 2020. All statistical information come from Eurostat.

Of the seven indicators listed in Table 2, the largest variety of international locations achieved in 2021 the EU goal for x7 (Share of inhabitants unable to maintain residence adequately heat). The goal was set at 1.88%, and the group of nations that managed to realize this goal contains Sweden, Finland, Slovenia, and Austria. The x7 indicator is strongly related to low ranges of revenue together with excessive expenditure on vitality and poor constructing effectivity requirements. Ranging from 2012, entry to inexpensive vitality for all European Union international locations systematically improved till 2019, simply earlier than the outbreak of the pandemic. Nations of Northern Europe and most of these in Western Europe had the bottom shares of individuals with out inexpensive entry to heating, in distinction to international locations of Southern and South-Jap Europe, which suffered from the dearth of sufficient heating. This was primarily because of the poor vitality effectivity of buildings, the dearth of sufficient heating methods and insulation, which triggered greater heating prices. As well as, the widely decrease revenue ranges in these areas have an effect on housing requirements and the flexibility to pay for gasoline [8].

Within the case of the x5 indicator (Share of renewable vitality in gross last vitality consumption), associated to vitality provide, the goal for 2030 (40%) was achieved by Sweden, Finland, and Latvia. In 2021 the share of renewable vitality sources (RES) in gross last vitality consumption was equal to 62.6% in Sweden, 43.1% in Finland and 42.1% in Latvia. Such outcomes had been achieved by counting on hydropower and strong biofuels, that are considered extra environmentally pleasant in comparison with typical vitality sources. Typically, the usage of renewable vitality within the EU will be mentioned to be steadily rising. This progress is essentially as a consequence of the usage of wind and photo voltaic vitality. Nonetheless, the variation within the share of renewables throughout Member States continues to be very massive. This may be attributed, amongst different issues, to variations within the availability of RES in addition to the diploma of accessible monetary and regulatory help. In comparison with 2005, the share of renewable vitality sources in 2021 greater than doubled, from 10.2% to 21.8% of gross last vitality consumption. This enhance was pushed by reductions in funding prices, the usage of extra environment friendly applied sciences, provide chain enhancements and help schemes for renewables [7]. It’s price noting that the 9.5% enhance within the share of renewable vitality in gross last vitality consumption in 2019–2021 can be the results of a decline in last vitality consumption through the COVID-19 pandemic, which implies that this transformation was momentary. As soon as last vitality consumption returns to pre-pandemic ranges, the share of RES in gross last vitality consumption will almost definitely fall [5].

The 2030 goal for the x6 indicator (Power import dependency), which is expounded to vitality provide, was achieved in 2021 by Sweden and Estonia. In 2020, all EU international locations had been web importers of vitality, with 16 importing greater than half of their whole vitality consumption from different international locations (EU and non-EU international locations). In comparison with 2005, gasoline imports from non-EU international locations barely decreased from 57.8% to 57.5% of gross obtainable vitality. In 2020, the principle non-EU vitality suppliers included Russia (43.6% of gasoline, 28.9% of petroleum merchandise and 53.7% of strong gasoline imports), Norway and the UK (25.4% of gasoline imports and 16.5% of oil imports), North America (18.8% of strong gasoline imports). Imports of fossil fuels nonetheless cowl greater than half of the EU’s vitality demand regardless of the continual progress of renewable vitality sources. The stagnation is because of two elements. First, the EU has diminished vitality consumption and elevated the usage of home renewables. Second, main manufacturing of fossil fuels has declined because of the depletion or uneconomical exploitation of home sources, particularly within the case of pure gasoline [5].

In 2021, Spain, Malta and Portugal achieved the 2030 goal for the x3 indicator (last vitality consumption in households per capita), which is expounded to vitality consumption. Households account for a few quarter of ultimate vitality consumption. From 2010 to 2015, family vitality consumption in EU international locations decreased by 12.7%, and remained at kind of the identical stage for the following 5 years: in 2020, it was solely about 0.5% greater than in 2015. It was not till 2021, that the indicator had elevated by 5.6% in comparison with 2020. Due to enhancements in vitality effectivity, notably in area heating, it was potential to steadiness the inhabitants progress and will increase within the quantity and measurement of dwellings [5]. Within the interval from 2010 to 2021, vitality consumption per capita within the EU decreased by 7.3%. This decline was accompanied by a slight downward pattern in whole family vitality consumption offsetting a 1.3% enhance within the inhabitants (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/demo_gind/default/table?lang=en).

In 2021, Denmark, Eire and Luxembourg achieved the 2030 goal for the x4 indicator (vitality productiveness), associated to vitality consumption. Since 2000, the EU repeatedly elevated its vitality productiveness, reaching EUR 8.55 per kilograms of oil equal (kgoe) in 2021. All Member States contributed to this constructive pattern in an try to succeed in the 2030 goal of 10.44 per kgoe.

As regards the final two indicators, x1 (main vitality consumption) and x2 (last vitality consumption), associated to vitality consumption, in 2021 the goal set for 2030 was solely achieved by Greece. From 2005, main and last vitality consumption within the EU was usually on a downward pattern, which was as a consequence of varied elements, together with a structural shift in direction of much less energy-intensive industries and enhancements in end-use effectivity within the residential sector. Measures taken through the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated restrictions on public life and financial exercise resulted in a major lower in vitality consumption by over 8% in 2020 in comparison with 2019. Different elements that in the long run contribute to falling vitality consumption embrace enhancements in vitality effectivity and the rising use of vitality from renewable sources. Even if results of the pandemic can nonetheless be felt within the economic system, the restoration noticed in 2021 actually led to greater vitality consumption, stopping EU international locations from attaining the 2030 goal. Due to this fact, innovation and extra enhancements in vitality effectivity are nonetheless required.

1.2. The aim of the article

Each the European Union as an entire and every of its member states analysed within the research range of their progress on SDG 7. To adequately describe this drawback, it’s vital to make use of completely different analysis approaches. That is additionally confirmed by the present literature. Three methodological approaches will be distinguished on this regard:

The mixture measure strategy, during which one measures the general progress on all indicators achieved by particular person international locations. This strategy can be utilized to create a rating of nations in line with the worth of the mixture measure of all indicators (diagnostic options) representing progress on SDG 7. As a result of this strategy doesn’t have in mind the goal values these indicators ought to obtain by 2030, it can’t be used to find out the gap of particular person EU international locations in relation to targets set for 2030. This strategy is utilized, amongst others, by [9–13].
The mixture measure strategy which takes into consideration the goal values for the symptoms (see Table 2) with out adjusting the info. Nationwide values of particular person indicators are associated to their goal values. This strategy can be used to create a rating of nations in line with the worth of the mixture measure of all indicators (diagnostic options) representing progress on SDG 7. As well as, it’s also potential to calculate how far particular person EU international locations are from attaining the objectives set for 2030 (EU-level targets for 2030). This type of strategy was offered, for instance, within the work by [3, 14].
The mixture measure strategy which takes into consideration the goal values for the symptoms (see Table 2) with adjusted information. Along with assessing progress on SDG 7 achieved by particular person EU international locations and their distance in relation to the objectives set for 2030, the strategy depends on information corrected as follows: when a given nation exceeds targets proven in Table 2 (EU-level targets for 2030), these greater nationwide values for stimulants and decrease nationwide values for destimulants usually are not included within the evaluation however are changed by goal values set for the complete European Union. This strategy was offered, for instance, within the work by [15, 16] to evaluate the implementation of the Europe 2020 Technique.

The aim of the next research is to evaluate progress made by particular person EU international locations in 2010–2021 in direction of attaining SDG 7 and to find out their distance in relation to targets set for 2030. To beat the issues with the primary and second strategy, we suggest an progressive third strategy, which accounts for the goal values of the symptoms and makes use of adjusted information. This strategy has not been utilized in such a analysis to this point and the usage of the geometric imply within the dynamic relative taxonomy technique has made it potential to scale back the affect of the destructive compensation impact on the values of mixture measures. The outcomes of the research have necessary implications for particular person EU international locations. Along with exhibiting progress in direction of the SDG 7 goal, in addition they signify the gap that separates every nation from attaining the 2030 goal. The proposed methodology can be used to evaluate progress made by EU international locations within the implementation of different SDGs of the 2030 Agenda.

Composite indicators play an necessary position within the evaluation of socio-economic phenomena. Various completely different approaches to developing composite indicators have been proposed within the literature [17, p. 3] relying on the diploma of compensation: compensatory, partially compensatory, and non-compensatory. Research on multi-criteria decision-making makes use of of non-compensatory strategies, see [18–20]. An outline of compensatory and partially compensatory mixture measures utilized to various kinds of information will be present in [21, 22].

Underneath the mixture measure strategy, constructive and destructive deviations from the goal values of particular person indicators can accumulate. Because of this, international locations which have exceeded targets for some indicators however have failed to realize these set for almost all of different indicators will be categorized as international locations which have made a lot progress on SDG 7. In different phrases, the principle weak point of strategies based mostly on mixture measures is their compensatory nature, which is most strongly manifested within the first and the second strategy.

So as to restrict the affect of this compensation impact on the rating of EU international locations, the next had been included within the methodology of relative taxonomy (see part 3):

the third mixture measure strategy which takes into consideration the 2030 goal values for the symptoms (see Table 2) with information adjustment,
in step 6 and seven of the process, the geometric imply was used within the development of the mixture measure.

2. Literature assessment

In recent times, vitality safety has develop into a fundamental factor of the financial safety system. Latest occasions have clearly proven that vitality coverage and its monitoring play a key position in guaranteeing secure financial growth [23, 24]. With out an vitality coverage, it’s tough to ensure the safety of vitality provide to households and different shoppers from all financial sectors. The Sustainable Growth Objectives (SDGs) set out by the UN in 2015 are notably related within the current political and financial context [1, 25]. The 17 objectives, together with 169 targets, point out international priorities which comprehensively outline sustainable growth when it comes to financial, environmental, and social facets [26]. SDGs are a revised model of the Millennium Growth Objectives (MDGs) formulated for the interval 2000–2015. The operational interval of the MDGs revealed that these objectives didn’t focus sufficient on some points associated to sustainable growth, reminiscent of vitality [27, 28]. Though entry to sustainable vitality providers is likely one of the basic situations for sustainable growth, vitality was solely included as a key theme in Agenda 2030 [1].

SDG 7 is to “guarantee entry to inexpensive, dependable, sustainable, and fashionable vitality for all”. This aim contains 5 targets to be achieved by 2030 (see part 1.1; [29]) and is carefully associated to the targets of eight different objectives. Many research on the standard of interlinkages between SDGs have confirmed that the pursuit of sure targets generates results that have an effect on different targets [25, 30]. Researchers highlighted constructive and destructive results [31–33]. Various research have been undertaken to establish correlations and map relationships between the SDGs [28, 34–40]. Some have targeted solely on a particular goal space reminiscent of vitality, water or meals and explored its hyperlinks with different SDGs [41–43]. SDG 7 has been discovered to be very strongly correlated with SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 12 (Accountable Consumption and Manufacturing) and SDG 13 (Local weather Motion).

Whereas research on interlinkages between SDGs are useful in analysis processes, they don’t present full data on whether or not, and to what extent, the SDGs are literally achieved. To maximise progress on SDGs, it’s essential to assess the significance of the person objectives by figuring out issues and boundaries to attaining them and areas that require consideration sooner or later [44]. Undoubtedly, one of many key questions that must be answered is how one can measure international locations’ efficiency and consider their actions aimed toward attaining SDGs. One of many priorities indicated by [45] for a way the scientific group ought to take part on this course of was to design a manner for monitoring and assessing progress on every SDG. Given the broad scope of the 17 objectives, completely different scales (nationwide, regional, international), multi-issue protection and ambiguous language, such evaluation requires appropriately adjusted statistical instruments [10, 46, 47]. Even on the stage of every nation, the place in a selected hierarchy is usually relative and depends upon preliminary assumptions, the chosen technique, indicators used to create the rating. Moreover, some objectives (e.g., SDG 7) are extra delicate to methodological selections than others (e.g., SDG 16) [14, 48, 49].

Though the measurement of progress on the SDGs has been the subject of debate amongst researchers because the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, the literature regarding potential approaches continues to be restricted [14, 46, 47, 50]. Because the SDGs and targets can’t be measured immediately, they’ve been largely operationalized by a lot of indicators [51, 52]. 231 indicators had been outlined by the UN Statistical Fee to observe and assess international sustainability [53, 54]. The set of SDG indicators outlined by the EU includes round 100 indicators. 31 indicators are used to observe multiple aim. The symptoms have been chosen to have in mind the EU context and perspective, availability, nation protection, information freshness and high quality [5, 55].

Some authors have proposed approaches specializing in particular person indicators. For instance, [56] carried out an in depth evaluation of the indicator 6.4.2 (i.e., Stage of water stress). Firoiu et al. [57] used strategies of dynamic evaluation and prediction instruments to evaluate progress on the SDGs achieved by Romania. Bidarbakhtnia [58] analysed three strategies utilized by, respectively, OECD, the Sustainable Growth Options Community (SDSN) and the United Nations Financial and Social Fee for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). All of them measure the gap of every indicator from the 2030 goal. The research carried out by UNESCAP additionally exhibits progress on every indicator since 2000 in proportion to whole progress wanted for the area to succeed in the 2030 goal. Giupponi et al. [59] offered an strategy for the spatial evaluation of Water Use Effectivity (SDG indicator 6.4.1). Moyer and Hedden [60] used an built-in evaluation mannequin to guage progress towards goal values on 9 indicators associated to 6 SDGs associated to human growth.

Using particular person indicators with out an correct and scientific observe up on their operationalization is tough due to comparability points, reporting necessities and decision-making processes [61–63]. Since there are research indicating that relying completely on the worldwide set of particular person indicators results in questionable outcomes, some researchers argue that progress on SDGs needs to be moreover measured via composite indicators (e.g. [52, 64]. It’s price including that within the case of many indicators, it’s tough to conduct evaluation and consider the outcomes for numerous international locations with out considering some type of index aggregation even when an artificial measure is tough to assemble and causes some lack of data. Regardless of limitations, the literature describes some strategies to evaluate progress on the SDGs, which contain composite indices and aggregated dashboards. Schmidt-Traub et al. [65] launched the SDG Index, which synthesizes country-level information for all 17 SDGs considering the higher and decrease bounds based mostly on finest and worst performing international locations. The SDG Index can be utilized to estimate the gap that separates every nation from attaining the SDGs. This strategy is additional developed within the article by [50], who suggest a novel strategy combining well-known strategies to supply a complete evaluation of Australia’s progress on all SDGs. An try to make use of a composite indicator referred to as ‘SDG achievement index’ (SDG-AI) to measure the SDGs, overlaying six dimensions of sustainable growth (Well being, Training, Companies, Employment, Equality and Atmosphere) will be present in [66, 67]. The SDG-AI can be utilized in two methods: to focus on variations between international locations and to guage the contribution of various dimensions to the ultimate end result. Dhaoui [66] assessed progress on SDGs in MENA (Center East and North Africa) international locations. Rocchi et al. [67] modified the strategy proposed by [66] to make it appropriate for the EU context. A strategy for assessing SDGs on the mixture stage with out shedding data on single objectives was proposed by [68]. Their research proposes a number of composite indices to evaluate the efficiency of EU member states. The 2-stage strategy involving Principal Part Evaluation was utilized to assemble goal-based indices, pillar-based indices, and the general SDG index. The indices had been used to find out the place a rustic at present stands on every of the symptoms thought-about within the evaluation, however they can’t be used to estimate the speed at which a rustic is transferring in direction of attaining the SDGs.

Miola and Schiltz [14] in contrast three major approaches to measuring progress on SDGs at nation stage: the SDG Index, the OECD’s distance measure, and progress measures based mostly on Eurostat’s report. They recognized essential weaknesses in these current strategies and their sensitivity to specific selections made alongside the best way: relying on which indicators and approaches are utilized, international locations can obtain considerably completely different relative evaluations. The authors establish the principle methodological challenges that needs to be addressed when creating analytical instruments to guage progress on SDGs.

Cavalli et al. [69] suggest a model-based strategy to evaluating the sustainability of the EU regional operational programme (ROP) when it comes to SDGs, which relies on an artificial sustainability index representing the a part of ROP assets that contribute to the 2030 Agenda in relation to the overall ROP assets. The usefulness of composite indicators has been demonstrated by [10], who in contrast the utility of the A number of Reference Level Weak-Sturdy Composite Indicators (MRP-WSCI) and its partially compensatory model (MRP-PCI) for assessing the sustainability of EU international locations in line with the framework of the 2030 Agenda. The strategy was used to supply composite indicators with completely different levels of compensation, which constituted the premise for a rustic rating.

Totally different variants of the methodology have already been used to construct composite sustainability indicators in relation to SDG 7. Vavrek and Chovancová [13] assessed EU international locations utilizing a set of eight energy-related indicators. Indicator weights had been decided utilizing the coefficient of variation from the TOPSIS technique. The authors assessed whether or not a rustic’s efficiency resulted from a single indicator considered typical for the positively or negatively evaluated international locations, or from a mix of indicators reflecting normal vitality points. Chovancová and Vavrek [11] offered a continuation of their analysis, during which they recognized one of the best and the worst performing EU international locations considering a set of indicators.

Cheba and Bąk [12] proposed an artificial measure based mostly on the TOPSIS technique to guage the connection between SDG 7 and environmental manufacturing effectivity, which is a key element of the concept of inexperienced progress. They discovered appreciable discrepancies between growth paths of various EU international locations regardless of their efforts to equalize the extent of growth on this space.

Dmytrów et al. [9] proposed an strategy to assessing the EU’s progress on SDG 7 on the nationwide stage utilizing an artificial measure obtained by making use of the tactic of complicated proportional evaluation (COPRAS). They produced a rating of nations when it comes to their progress on SDG 7 by making use of the Dynamic Time Warping technique. Hierarchical clustering was then used to find out homogeneous teams of nations.

The speed of progress on SDG 7 achieved by the EU international locations was additionally analysed by [49], who utilized hierarchical cluster evaluation to establish hidden associative constructions. In addition they ranked EU international locations in relation to the objectives of the 2030 and 2050 Agenda. The rating was used to establish clusters of nations sharing comparable traits relating to their efficiency on SDG 7. Cluster evaluation was additionally utilized by [70, 71] to evaluate energy-related indicators of SDGs. In each research, international locations’ efficiency was analysed and in contrast considering their very own situations and progress on SDG 7 and vitality transformation processes going down in EU member states.

Whereas the significance of assessing progress in direction of attaining sustainable growth objectives is acknowledged, the variety of articles proposing new strategies, particularly these representing a dynamic strategy, continues to be relatively restricted. Within the case of the SDGs, given the massive variety of indicators, it’s cheap to go for composite indicators [10]. Composite indicators are related to completely different levels of compensation. One can distinguish absolutely compensatory, partially compensatory, or non-compensatory indicators (see part 1.2). The really helpful strategy is to evaluate sustainability in relation to a threshold or a goal [10, 72]. In keeping with [73], ‘a given indicator doesn’t say something about sustainability, except a reference worth reminiscent of thresholds is given to it’. Non-compensatory strategies can be utilized to establish weak factors within the international evaluation of an object and thus potential areas for enchancment. For these causes, we suggest a novel non-compensatory strategy based mostly on rules of dynamic relative taxonomy utilized to the process of developing an mixture measure. It might probably account for reference ranges of every indicator and be used to rank international locations accordingly exhibiting the various distance that separates particular person EU international locations from the targets set out in Agenda 2030. An extra benefit of this technique is that the dynamic strategy signifies not solely relations between the objects in particular intervals, but additionally modifications within the phenomenon of curiosity that befell between objects over the complete reference interval. Thus, it may be used to trace cross-sectional and longitudinal modifications.

3. Utilizing dynamic relative taxonomy to assemble a composite index

The basic strategy to relative taxonomy was proposed by [74]. Lira [75] developed its positional model. Each approaches are static which implies that relativization given by components (5) is carried out individually for every single 12 months of interval analysed within the research. Static relative taxonomy has been utilized, amongst others, by [76–78].

The next research includes the usage of dynamic relative taxonomy, described in [21]. Within the dynamic model, values of the j-th variable in components (5) is relativised based mostly on a matrix of knowledge from all intervals. This strategy was prolonged by [22] to incorporate strong measures of central tendency. Geometric imply was utilized in steps 6 and seven of the dynamic relative taxonomy process (c.f. [16]):

Observations of m variables for n objects and T + 1 intervals (2010–2021 and the 12 months 2030, for which goal values are set) are mixed into one information matrix:
(1)
the place: i = 1, …, n—object quantity (n = 28: the EU as an entire and 27 EU international locations),
j = 1, …, m—variable quantity (m = 7: indicators for SDG 7 –see Table 2),
t = 1, …, T, T*—the place t = 1, …, T represents years 2010–2021, and t = T* the 12 months 2030, for which goal values are set–see Table 2.
Stimulants and destimulants are recognized within the set of variables (each phrases had been launched by [79]). As a substitute of describing variables as stimulants and destimulants, [80] use the phrases ‘constructive polarity’ (growing values of the index correspond to an enchancment within the phenomenon of curiosity) and ‘destructive polarity’ (growing values of the index correspond to a deterioration within the phenomenon of curiosity). Hwang and Yoon [81, p. 130] use the ideas of ‘profit’ (bigger values of a variable are most well-liked) and ‘price’ (bigger values of a variable are much less most well-liked).
Observations on every variable are changed with goal values if the next situations are glad (information adjustment):
(2)
(3)
y_ijT*—goal values of SDG 7 indicators set for 2030.
For every variable, values greater (for stimulants) or decrease (for destimulants) than the targets are changed with the values of EU-level targets (goal values of SDG 7 indicators set for 2030). This operation will be referred to as one-sided Winsorization of the info (see e.g., [82]).
Destimulants D are transformed into stimulants utilizing the ratio transformation:
(4)

Values of every j-th variable are relativized in line with the next n ∙ T* × n ∙ T* matrix:
(5)
Because of relativization, variable values are dimensionless. When the numerator will not be larger than the denominator, the relativization components produces values included within the interval (0; 1], in any other case, values are included within the interval (1; ∞).

The common similarity of a given relativized statement with respect to different relativized observations of the j-th variable for every column of matrix (5) is calculated utilizing the geometric imply:
(6)
The [z_ijt] matrix is equal to a normalised matrix in multivariate statistical evaluation.

Values of the composite indicator SM_it are calculated in line with the next components:
(7)
Values of the composite indicator SM_it given by (7) will be larger or smaller than 1. The smaller the worth of SM_it is, the higher the place of object i relative to different objects in a time interval from t = 1 to t = T*. Not like the static strategy, the dynamic strategy exhibits not solely relations between the objects in particular intervals, but additionally modifications within the phenomenon of curiosity that befell between objects over the complete reference interval.

The tactic of dynamic relative taxonomy is characterised by the next properties:

it may well solely be used for variables measured on the ratio scale (their values are constructive actual numbers). In different phrases, it can’t be utilized to interval-valued information. This isn’t a severe limitation because the majority of variables describing financial phenomena are measured on the ratio scale;

composite indicators SM_it do not need an higher sure, which doesn’t disqualify them as such;

the info matric can have lacking values (NA), that are excluded within the calculation of the composite indicators SM_it;

the drawback of the static strategy when calculating the typical similarity of a given relativized statement in relation to different relativized observations has been eradicated (extra particulars will be present in [21].

4. Leads to relation to EU-level targets for 2030

In step one we analysed modifications in SM_it representing progress on SDG 7 within the EU international locations. Table 3 exhibits values of SM_it representing progress on SDG 7 achieved by EU international locations in 2010–2021. The decrease the worth of SM_it, the higher the place of object i relative to different objects in every year and over the complete reference interval. The dynamic strategy reveals not solely relationships between objects in numerous years but additionally modifications that befell within the stage of a given indicator over the complete reference interval.

The final three columns in Table 3 present, respectively, the increment within the composite indicator between 2030 and 2010 (Δ = SM_i2030 − SM_i2010), the increment within the composite indicator between 2021and 2010 (Δ1 = SM_i2021 − SM_i2010) and the gap of every EU nation in relation to the goal set for 2030 (Δ2 = SM_i2030 − SM_i2021).

Nations furthest away from the goal firstly of the reference interval included Malta (SM_i2010 = 2.04), Cyprus (SM_i2010 = 1.59), Bulgaria (SM_i2010 = 1.52), Belgium (SM_i2010 = 1.40), Lithuania (SM_i2010 = 1.36), Poland (SM_i2010 = 1.36). Nations that had been closest to the targets in 2010 included three Scandinavian–Denmark (SM_i2010 = 0.77), Sweden (SM_i2010 = 0.80), Finland (SM_i2010 = 0.92) and Austria (SM_i2010 = 0.94). Between 2010 and 2021 values of SM_it fell on common by practically 2% every year, which implies that the gap of all international locations from the targets stored lowering. The largest common annual change (decline) through the reference interval was noticed for Malta (4.5%), Latvia (2.8%), Cyprus (2.7%) and Eire (2.6%). The smallest common annual change (decline) all through the reference interval was noticed for Denmark (0.4%), Finland (1.1%) and Sweden (1.5%).

The gap of the European Union as an entire in 2021 in relation to the goal set for 2030 is Δ1 = –0.4207. Fourteen EU international locations had been nearer to the goal in 2021 (see Fig 1). Due to modifications within the values of the seven indicators that befell over 11 years, the group of nations that got here closest to the 2030 goal in 2021, other than the three Scandinavian international locations, contains Estonia, Austria, and Slovenia. Regardless of large will increase within the values of the composite indicator, the most important distance in relation to the SDG 7 goal in 2021 will be noticed for Bulgaria, Lithuania, Malta, and Cyprus.

Fig 1. A graphical illustration of SM_it values in relation to the EU-level goal for 2030, representing progress on SDG 7 achieved from 2010 to 2021, and sorted by values noticed in 2021.

Supply: Chart created utilizing R program [83].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297856.g001

Fig 1 supplies a graphical illustration of SM_it values in relation to the EU-level goal for 2030, representing progress on SDG 7 achieved from 2010 to 2021, and sorted by values noticed in 2021. The horizontal line represents the EU-level SDG 7 goal worth of the composite indicator SM_i2030 = 0.5486.

The largest progress (enchancment within the worth of SM_it between 2010 and 2021) on SDG 7 within the interval 2010–2021 was made by Malta (Δ1 = −0.8165), adopted by Cyprus (Δ1 = –0.4156), Latvia (Δ1 = –0.3338), Belgium (Δ1 = – 0.3289), Eire (Δ1 = –0.3259) and Poland (Δ1 = –0.3211). The European Union as an entire is making progress in direction of assembly the SDG 7 aim. The advance within the worth of the mixture measurer SM_it within the interval 2010–2021 was Δ1 = −0.1878. Within the Eurostat report [84], progress in direction of the SDG 7 aim was described as reasonably favorable.

In comparison with 2010, the largest climb within the rating for 2021 will be noticed for Latvia (by 11 locations, from nineteenth to eighth), Eire (by 7 locations, from twenty first to 14th), Netherlands (by 4 locations, from eleventh to seventh), Germany (by 4 locations, from thirteenth to ninth), Portugal (by 4 locations, from sixteenth to twelfth). Due to small enchancment within the worth of the composite indicator for Spain (Δ1 = −0.0492), Romania (Δ1 = −0.0866) and Slovakia (Δ1 = −0.0941), they fell within the rating, respectively, by 12 locations (from seventh to nineteenth), by 7 locations (from ninth to sixteenth) and by 8 locations (from 14th to twenty second).

It’s price noting that in 2021 as many as 12 international locations signify the same, common stage of the composite indicator, starting from 0.898 (Netherlands) to 0.993 (Spain). The diploma of variation between the smallest and the largest values is significantly larger.

Fig 2 features a line graph exhibiting progress on SDG 7 achieved by the 28 objects (the EU and the 27 EU international locations) between 2010 and 2021.

The reference interval contains the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, which evidently affected deterioration on SDG 7 achieved by Sweden, Denmark, and Germany in 2020 in relation to the efficiency noticed in 2019. The same deterioration in efficiency will be noticed in 2021 in relation to 2020 within the case of 16 international locations (Austria, Finland, Netherlands, France, Czech Republic, Croatia, Eire, Romania, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Belgium, Hungary, Lithuania, Bulgaria). No destructive results through the pandemic will be noticed for the remaining 8 international locations.

The horizontal line on the backside of the chart represents the EU-level goal for 2030: SM_i2030 = 0.5486. A scientific lower each the typical worth of the mixture measure and its diversification will be noticed in the complete interval beneath research (see Table 3, Fig 2). Initially, this means systematic progress on SDG 7 achieved by the EU international locations. Secondly, it exhibits that variations between EU international locations hold getting smaller, as evidenced by the vary and the usual deviations of the composite indicator (see Table 3). The vary of the composite indicator decreased from in 2010 to in 2021.

5. Conclusions and coverage implications

Since September 2015, 193 UN international locations have been working to implement the decision “Reworking our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Growth” containing 17 Sustainable Growth Objectives (SDGs). To make sure sustainable efficiency within the context of the challenges posed by the 2030 Agenda, every EU nation must correctly assess its progress in direction of attaining SDGs. Given the significance of this want, we got down to analyse the efficiency of the EU international locations in relation to the core targets lined by SDG 7, measuring progress by utilizing seven indicators. For 3 of those indicators the European Fee has set goal values for 2030. For the opposite 4, the goal values had been based mostly on the “finest efficiency” among the many EU international locations in 2015.

Progress on SDGs is often measured via composite indicators. Three methodological approaches will be distinguished relying on the diploma of compensation: absolutely compensatory, partially compensatory, and non-compensatory. The third strategy is really helpful since along with accounting for goal values of the symptoms, it includes information adjustment and can be utilized to establish weak factors within the nation’s international evaluation, and, consequently, point out potential areas for enchancment (see part 1.2). As a result of the principle aim of the research was to evaluate progress on SDG 7 achieved by particular person EU international locations and to find out their distance in relation to the goal set for 2030, we determined to make use of a multidimensional indicator proposed and constructed by making use of dynamic relative taxonomy (part 3). The tactic used within the evaluation represents a non-compensatory strategy.

Through the reference interval (2010–2021), all EU international locations made systematic progress in direction of attaining SDG 7, though to a distinct diploma and at completely different charge. Taking a look at what number of international locations managed to realize the EU targets for 2030, one of the best end result will be noticed for the x7 indicator (Share of inhabitants unable to maintain residence adequately heat), which was achieved by Sweden, Finland, Slovenia, Austria; adopted by the x5 indicator (Share of renewable vitality in gross last vitality consumption)–achieved by Sweden, Finland, Latvia; the x4 indicator (Power productiveness)–achieved by Denmark, Eire, Luxembourg; for the x3 indicator (Closing vitality consumption in households per capita)–achieved by Spain, Malta, Portugal; for the x6 indicator (Power import dependency)–achieved by Sweden, Estonia. Greece was the one nation to realize the 2030 goal stage for the remaining two indicators, specifically x1 (Major vitality consumption) and x2 (Closing vitality consumption).

In 2010, the gap from the 2030 goal was the largest for Malta, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Belgium, Lithuania, Poland, and the smallest for Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Austria. Due to modifications within the values of the seven indicators that befell over 11 years, the group of nations that got here closest to the 2030 goal in 2021, other than the three Scandinavian international locations, contains Estonia, Austria, and Slovenia. Regardless of large will increase within the values of the composite indicator, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Malta, and Cyprus remained furthest away from the SDG 7 goal in 2021.

The pattern relating to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda has been influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic. Many EU international locations skilled a slowdown within the progress in direction of SDGs. Within the case of SDG 7, the gap from the 2030 goal in 2020 in comparison with 2019 had elevated for Sweden, Denmark, and Germany. The same deterioration in efficiency will be noticed from 2020 to 2021 within the case of 16 international locations (Austria, Finland, Netherlands, France, Czechia, Croatia, Eire, Romania, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Belgium, Hungary, Lithuania, Bulgaria). It’s price emphasizing that through the pandemic, some enchancment could possibly be noticed for sure indicators. Counter-pandemic measures helped to reinforce vitality effectivity, which is likely one of the key pillars in attaining SDG 7. The restrictions on public life and decrease financial exercise diminished vitality consumption from 2019 to 2020 by greater than 8%. The discount in last vitality consumption additionally resulted in larger vitality provide and elevated the share of renewables in gross last vitality consumption. The financial restoration of 2021 and the return to pre-pandemic mobility patterns elevated the demand for vitality once more. Nonetheless, consumption remained beneath pre-pandemic ranges as the consequences of the pandemic continued to form vitality and financial actions. The obvious destructive consequence of the pandemic was the rise in vitality consumption by EU households. Given these short-term tendencies, it’s clear that to be able to make sure the EU achieves its objectives by 2030, modifications in all indicators needs to be repeatedly monitored and assessed. The primary motivation of our research was due to this fact to suggest a methodological strategy that might present data to make such monitoring potential.

The novelty of the research consists in making use of a non-compensatory strategy to point out the various distance that separates particular person EU international locations from the targets set out in Agenda 2030. This was potential because of the usage of the mixture strategy within the methodology of dynamic relative taxonomy (see part 3) considering the goal values of the symptoms for 2030 with information adjustment (one-sided Winsorization in step 3 –see part 1.2) and the usage of the geometric imply in step 6 and seven of the process of the mixture measure developing. It’s price noting that the dynamic strategy signifies not solely relations between the objects in particular intervals, but additionally modifications within the phenomenon of curiosity that befell between objects over the complete reference interval. In different phrases, it may be used to monitoring modifications from a cross-sectional and longitudinal perspective.

The carried out research has additionally its limitations. It was not potential to make use of all SDG 7 indicators included in Agenda 2030 as a result of required statistical information weren’t immediately comparable (the primary two indicators in Table 2), as defined in part 1.2. The important thing drawback of mixture strategies, i.e., their compensatory nature (the truth that constructive and destructive deviations from the goal values of particular person indicators can accumulate), was significantly diminished by utilising the geometric imply and by making use of one-sided Winsorization of the info, in line with formulation (2) and (3).

The outcomes of the research contribute to analysis on vitality safety, which is at present a necessary factor of the financial safety system. The proposed strategy involving dynamic relative taxonomy can be utilized as a software supporting efforts to observe progress on SDG 7 as a part of the nationwide vitality coverage. It’s price emphasizing that progress achieved by specific international locations will be extra related than their last efficiency outcomes. So as to correctly assess progress relating to the objectives of Agenda 2030, along with calculating indices and creating nation rankings for chosen years, it’s essential to analyse modifications over time utilizing the dynamic strategy.

By design, all 17 SDGs are an built-in set of world priorities and goals however SDG 7, in addition to SDG 2 (Zero starvation), SDG 3 (Good well being and well-being), SDG 14 (Life beneath water), are categorized as being essentially the most synergistic with different SDGSs. Due to this fact, the outcomes offered on this article will be handled as a place to begin for coverage makers and different stakeholders occupied with figuring out the principle instructions of change, priorities, and techniques in nationwide insurance policies of sustainable growth.

As demonstrated within the research, the proposed methodology can be utilized not solely to evaluate progress on SDG 7 however it additionally supplies a related contribution to analysis relating to strategies of measuring nationwide progress on the opposite SDGs included in Agenda 2030.