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Spondylus – Wikipedia

Spondylus – Wikipedia

2024-03-11 00:43:43

Genus of molluscs

Spondylus
A shell of "Spondylus regius"
A shell of Spondylus regius
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Area: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Order: Pectinida
Superfamily: Pectinoidea
Household: Spondylidae
Gray, 1826
Genus: Spondylus
Linnaeus, 1758[1]
Type species
Spondylus gaederopus
Species

See text

Synonyms
  • Carallospondylus Monterosato, 1917
  • Dianchora J. Sowerby, 1815
  • Eleutherospondylos Dunker, 1882
  • Eltopera Iredale, 1939
  • Lanilda Iredale, 1939
  • Spondylus (Corallospondylus) Monterosato, 1917
  • Spondylus (Eleutherospondylos) Dunker, 1882
  • Spondylus (Eltopera) Iredale, 1939
  • Spondylus (Lanilda) Iredale, 1939
  • Spondylus (Rimaespondylus) Damarco, 2015 (unavailable title: no sort species designated)
  • Spondylus (Sponvola) Iredale, 1939
  • Sponvola Iredale, 1939

Spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs, the one genus within the family Spondylidae.[2] They’re recognized in English as spiny oysters or thorny oysters (although they don’t seem to be, in reality, true oysters).

Description[edit]

Spondylus varius in Mayotte.

The various species of Spondylus fluctuate significantly in look. They’re grouped in the identical superfamily because the scallops.

They don’t seem to be intently associated to true oysters (household Ostreidae); nevertheless, they do share some habits corresponding to cementing themselves to rocks moderately than attaching themselves by a byssus. The 2 halves of their shells are joined with a ball-and-socket sort of hinge, moderately than with a toothed hinge as is extra frequent in different bivalves. Additionally they nonetheless retain vestigial anterior and posterior auricles (“ears”, triangular shell flaps) alongside the hinge line, a attribute characteristic of scallops, although not of oysters.

As is the case in all scallops, Spondylus spp. have a number of eyes across the edges of their mantle, and so they have comparatively well-developed nervous systems. Their nervous ganglia are concentrated within the visceral area, with recognisable optic lobes linked to the eyes.

Evolutionary historical past[edit]

The genus Spondylus appeared within the Mesozoic era, and is understood within the fossil data from the Triassic Cassian beds in Italy (235 to 232 million years in the past) onwards. About 40 extinct species are recognized.[3]

Fossil valve of Spondylus crassicosta from the Pliocene of Italy

Fossils of those molluscs could be present in fossiliferous marine strata everywhere in the world. For instance, they’re current in Cretaceaous rocks within the Fort Worth Formation of Texas, and within the Trent River Formation of Vancouver Island, in addition to in different elements of North America.[4][5]

Distribution[edit]

Spiny oysters are present in all subtropical and (particularly) tropical seas, normally near the coasts.

Ecology[edit]

Spondylus are filter feeders. The adults reside cemented to onerous substrates, a attribute they share, by convergent evolution, with true oysters and jewel boxes. Just like the latter, they’re protected by spines and a layer of epibionts and, like the previous, they’ll produce pearls.[6] The kind of substrate they use depends upon the species: many solely connect to coral, and the most important variety of species is present in tropical coral reefs; others, (significantly S. spinosus) nevertheless, simply adapt to man-made buildings, and have grow to be vital invasive species. Others nonetheless are sometimes discovered hooked up to different shells, maybe the commonest belonging to the genus Malleus.

Archaeological proof signifies that individuals in Neolithic Europe have been buying and selling the shells of S. gaederopus to make bangles and different ornaments all through a lot of the Neolithic interval.[7] The principle use interval seems to have been from round 5350 to 4200 BC.[7] The shells have been harvested from the Aegean Sea, however have been transported far into the middle of the continent. Within the LBK and Lengyel cultures, Spondylus shells from the Aegean Sea have been labored into bracelets and belt buckles. Over time types modified with the center neolithic favouring typically bigger barrel-shaped beads and the late neolithic smaller flatter and disk formed beads.[7] Important finds of jewellery constituted of Spondylus shells have been made on the Varna Necropolis. Throughout the late Neolithic using Spondylus in grave items seems to have been restricted to girls and youngsters.[7]

Pre-Columbian clothes made from Spondylus shell beads. La Florida archaeological web site (Quito, Ecuador).

S. crassisquama is discovered off the coast of Colombia and Ecuador and has been vital to Andean peoples since pre-Columbian instances, serving as each an providing to the Pachamama and as foreign money.[8] In actual fact, very similar to in Europe, the Spondylus shells additionally reached far and extensive, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-day Mexico and as far south because the central Andes.[9] The Moche folks of historic Peru regarded the ocean and animals as sacred; they used Spondylus shells of their artwork and depicted Spondylus in effigy pots.[10] Spondylus have been additionally harvested from the Gulf of California and traded to tribes by means of Mexico and the American Southwest.

Spondylus shells have been the driving issue of commerce throughout the Central Andes and have been utilized in the same method to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, purple pepper, and cotton fabric.[11]

The usage of Spondylus shells is what led to an economic system of types within the Central Andes and led to the event of a service provider class, “mercardes”, in numerous cultures throughout the Central Andes.[12] This brought about the event of various types of commerce that went by means of evolutionary modifications all through pre-Columbian instances. These are reciprocity (house primarily based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line commerce, central place (redistribution), central place (market trade), emissary buying and selling, and port of commerce.[13] These modes of commerce dictate the way in which that the Spondylus shells are traded, in addition to who’s benefiting probably the most from the trades. Modes corresponding to central place (redistribution) require the entity that’s the central place to be the one which positive factors probably the most profit from the commerce, and modes corresponding to emissary buying and selling and port of commerce are the modes that began the “mercardes” class throughout the Central Andes.

The worth of Spondylus shells within the Central Andes stems from provide and demand. There was loads of demand for Spondylus shells as a result of “fetishistic must the south”.[14]

Even at this time, there are collectors of Spondylus shells, and a industrial market exists for them. Moreover, some species (particularly S. americanus) are typically discovered within the saltwater aquariums.

S. limbatus was generally floor for mortar in Central America, giving increase to its junior synonym, “S. calcifer”.

See Also

Spondylus is fished primarily for its adductor muscle, or “callus”, which is a high-value foodstuff.[15] Some Mediterranean species are edible and are generally consumed, with S. gaederopus specifically being in style in Sardinia. Tropical species, nevertheless, are likely to bioaccumulate saxitoxin.[16]
The Romans ate them. Macrobius in Saturnalia III.13 describes a cocktail party in 63 BCE wherein there have been two programs of Spondylus.

Aztec tradition[edit]

Along with its significance within the pre-Columbian instances, Spondylus crassiquama was additionally an vital a part of Aztec tradition. Spondylus makes use of amongst Aztecs included: artwork, jewellery, statues, spiritual motifs, and at instances foreign money. One instance of Spondylus utilized in artwork is the double-headed serpent which could be seen amongst photos on the fitting of the web page.

Double-headed serpent

As said above, Spondylus held immense spiritual worth amongst Aztec tradition pre-columbian instances and can also be an amazing illustration of the connection between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec teams and peoples’, Spondylus was a present from the gods to be celebrated. Sure Spondylus teams have been shaped because of when and the place they are often discovered seasonally and have a tendency to attach a selected group of Spondylus to particular spiritual symbols such because the Solar god, the Moon goddess, and the mountain spirits. This led to sure teams of Spondylus being related to seasonal climate occasions corresponding to heavy rains or will increase in sea temperature alongside the coast, as these occasions have been intently related to explicit gods or spirits in Aztec tradition [1].

Spondylus had a number of key makes use of in pre-Columbian Aztec historical past, most predominantly its significance in jewellery, artwork, and sculpture. One other use of Spondylus, that needed to be carried out with excessive element and precision, was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and different items people would use to specific how useful or rich they have been in life and loss of life. By having probably the most lovely Spondylus items, meant that particular person had immense energy throughout the group.[17]

Masks made from Spondylus and different supplies

Species[edit]

Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions,[18] principally as a result of the truth that identification is historically primarily based on the shell solely, and that is extremely variable. So as to add to this, whereas some shallow-water species are extraordinarily frequent, not less than two deep-water ones are recognized from a single specimen, whereas a 3rd (S. gravis)[19] was solely rediscovered after 77 years. A minimum of one other frequent species (S. regius) has a distinct shell when it grows in deep water.[20]

Pacific thorny oyster, S. crassisquama Lamarck, 1819, from the Gulf of California, Mexico
The inside of two fossil valves of Spondylus from the Pliocene of Cyprus
Cat’s tongue oyster, Spondylus linguaefelis Sowerby, 1847, from Hawaii
A view of the colourful mantle edges of a reside thorny oyster from East Timor: The eyes could be seen on the perimeter between the mantle and the shell.
A fossil Spondylus gaederopus from the Pliocene of Cyprus
Spondylus visayensis

[2]

See additionally: Tikod amo, an undescribed species

References[edit]

  1. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum lessons, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentius Salvius: Holmiae. ii, 824 pp., obtainable on-line at http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/3/mode/1up
  2. ^ a b MolluscaBase (2019). MolluscaBase. Spondylus Linnaeus, 1758. Accessed by means of: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=138518 on 2019-03-04
  3. ^ “Fossilworks: Spondylus”. fossilworks.org. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  4. ^ Finsley, Chalres. 1999. A Discipline Information to the Fossils of Texas. Gulf Publishing. Lanham, Maryland. plate 55.
  5. ^ Ludvigsen, Rolf & Beard, Graham. 1997. West Coast Fossils: A Information to the Historic Lifetime of Vancouver Island. pg. 104
  6. ^ WingYan Ho, Joyce; Zhou, Chunhui. “Natural Pearls Reportedly from a Spondylus Species (“Thorny” Oyster)”. GIA. Gemological Institute of America. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
  7. ^ a b c d Gardelková-Vrtelová, Anna; Golej, Marián (2013). “The necklace from the Strážnice site in the Hodonín district (Czech Republic). A contribution on the subject of Spondylus jewelry in the Neolithic”. Documenta Praehistorica. Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. 40: 265–277. doi:10.4312/dp.40.21.Open access icon
  8. ^ Carter, Benjamin. “Spondylus in South American Prehistory” in Spondylus in Prehistory: New Information and Approaches. Ed. Fotis Ifantidis and Marianna Nikolaidou. BAR Worldwide Sequence 2216. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011: 63-89.
  9. ^ Shimada, Izumi. “Evolution of Andean Variety: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E-C.E. 600). The Cambridge Historical past of the Native Individuals of the Americas. Vol. III, pt. 1. Ed. Frank Salomon & Stuart B. Schwartz. Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 1999: 350-517, esp. “Mesoamerican-Northwest South American Connections”, pp. 430-436.
  10. ^ Katherine Berrin and Larco Museum. The Spirit of Historic Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
  11. ^ “Political Financial system, Ethnogenesis, and Language Dispersals within the Prehispanic Andes: A World-System Perspective”. American Anthropologist.
  12. ^ “Negotiated Subjugation: Maritime Commerce and the Incorporation of Chincha Into the Inca Empire”. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archeology.
  13. ^ Martin, Alexander J. (2001). “The Dynamics of Pre-Columbian Spondylus Trade across the South American Central Pacific Coast” (PDF). Florida Atlantic College, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the unique on 2020-06-19 – through ProQuest Dissertations & Theses International.
  14. ^ Waves of Affect: Pacific Maritime Networks Connecting Mexico, Central America, and Northwestern South America.
  15. ^ Lodeiros, César; Soria, Gaspar; Valentich-Scott, Paul; Munguía-Vega, Adrián; Cabrera, Jonathan Santana; Cudney-Bueno, Richard; Loor, Alfredo; Márquez, Adrian; Sonnenholzner, Stanislaus (August 2016). “Spondylids of Eastern Pacific Ocean” (PDF). Journal of Shellfish Analysis. 35 (2): 279–293. doi:10.2983/035.035.0203.
  16. ^ Montojo, U.M.; Sakamoto, S.; Cayme, M.F.; Gatdula, N.C.; Furio, E.F.; Relox, J.R.; Kodama, M. (2006). “Exceptional distinction in toxin accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins amongst bivalve species uncovered to Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum bloom in Masinloc bay, Philippines”. Toxicon. 48 (1): 85–92. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.04.014. PMID 16777162. S2CID 26090723.
  17. ^ Liu, Robert (2005-03-28). “Spondylus in Precolumbian, Historic and Contemporary Southwest Jewelry”. Ornament. pp. 38–44 – through Academia.edu.
  18. ^ WoRMS Editorial Board (2017). “Taxonomy”. Spondylus (Information Set). VLIZ. doi:10.14284/170. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
  19. ^ Lamprell, Kevin L. (Might 1998). “Current Spondylus species from the Center East and adjoining areas, with the outline of two new species”. Vita Marina. 45 (1–2): 58.
  20. ^ Poppe, Guido T. “Spondylus regius, deep water”. Shell Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19 February 2018.

Exterior hyperlinks[edit]

Bibliography[edit]


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